PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


T 


“The  Young  Artist" 


An  attractive  portrait,  showing  artistic  judgment.  Though  the 
sunlight  is  shining  through  the  window,  there  is  no  glare  or  fogging 
from  it. 

i 


PHOTOGRAPHY 

for 

YOUNG  PEOPLE 


TUDOR  JENKS 

AUTHOR  OF  “electricity  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE” 


WITH  SIXTEEN  FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRA- 
TIONS AND  TWENTY-NINE  DIAGRAMS 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1908,  by 
Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company 

September,  1908 

All  rights  reserved 


Preface 


The  first  thing  to  understand  about  photography  is 
that  we  may  mean  by  the  word  two  very  different 
things.  As  the  word  is  used  by  men  who  have 
given  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  to  the  study  of 
the  subject,  it  means  a deep  science  and  a marvellous 
art,  to  understand  which  completely  is  hardly  possible 
even  to  the  deepest  students,  the  wisest  philosophers, 
or  the  most  painstaking  workers  in  the  laboratory. 

To  them  the  whole  art  is  full  of  deep  questions, 
any  one  of  which  requires  for  its  full  understanding 
years  of  study  and  experiment.  Photography  in  this 
sense  belongs  to  men  of  science,  who  for  our  benefit 
solve  its  puzzles  and  tell  the  world  what  they  have 
learned. 

Fortunately  for  most  of  us,  photography  means  also 
something  far  easier,  much  pleasanter,  and  more  useful. 
There  was  a time  when  the  great  land  of  photography 
was  like  an  unexplored,  pathless  wilderness  or  forest, 
through  which  only  the  hardy  pioneer  could  make  his 
way  a step  at  a time,  gaining  every  advance  at  the 
cost  of  a dozen  painful  blunders.  But,  owing  to  the 
labours  of  these  pioneers,  at  first  the  good  paths  were 
found,  and  then  w'ere  by  other  workers  widened  into 
roads,  and  made  so  easy  that  even  a child’s  feet  may 
travel  in  them  safely,  surel}’,  and  easily. 

To  study  the  science  of  photography  is  to  learn  how 
these  paths  were  first  opened  and  then  made  into 

V 


VI 


PREFACE 


broad  roads.  But  to  travel  in  the  highwaysthat  have 
been  prepared  for  us  later  comers  is  in  no  way  difficult, 
and  is  full  of  pleasures. 

It  is  believed  that  the  reader  of  this  book  will  wish 
to  do  more  than  merely  make  his  way  along  the  easy 
routes  that  have  been  prepared  for  him.  It  is  hoped 
that  he  will  wish  to  know  at  least  the  outline  of  the 
work  that  has  been  done  to  make  photography  a daily 
pleasure  instead  of  an  absorbing  and  difficult  study. 
But  at  the  same  time  we  shall  try  never  to  forget  that 
for  most  of  us  the  attraction  of  photography  lies  in  the 
making  of  good  pictures,  and  that  the  history  of 
the  art  and  the  study  of  its  processes  are  chiefly 
valuable  because  they  teach  us  to  make  good  pictures 
by  knowing  just  what  to  do  and  just  why  each  thing 
is  done. 

In  this  book  we  shall  try  to  tell  even  the  beginner 
how  he  may  learn  to  use  his  camera,  his  chemicals,  and 
his  material,  to  the  best  advantage.  We  shall  not 
forget  that  some  like  to  work  without  bothering  them- 
selves about  why  results  come ; for  such  we  hope  to 
give  plain  directions  based  upon  the  best  authorities. 
For  those  who  wish  not  only  to  do  good  work,  but  to 
be  able  to  vary  the  work  and  to  understand  each  step 
they  take,  we  shall  tr}"  to  give  equally  plain  explana- 
tions pointing  out  the  reasons  for  what  is  done. 

We  believe,  however,  that  to  any  user  of  a camera 
who  learns  to  enjoy  his  work,  the  wish  to  know  more 
and  more  about  the  art  and  the  science  that  gives  him 
beautiful  pictures  or  valuable  records  is  sure  sooner  or 
later  to  come.  Once  the  wish  to  study  out  the  art  and 
mystery  of  light,  lens,  camera,  and  print,  is  born,  the 
student  may  be  safely  left  to  himself,  lie  will  need 


PEEFACE 


vii 

no  urging  to  give  time  enough,  and  possibly  too  much 
time,  to  the  fascinating  work  that  has  all  the  delights 
of  an  art  and  all  the  depths  of  a science. 

In  choosing  the  three  great  helpers  that  have  made 
our  times  different  from  the  past,  a recent  thoughtful 
writer,  George  lies,  chose  flame,  electricity,  and  the 
camera.  Flame  was  the  first  great  servant  that 
savage  man  won  from  nature ; electricity,  the  second, 
seems  rather  a powerful  genie  than  a servant ; but  he, 
too,  has  been  reduced  to  bondage.  Of  the  camera  we 
can  hardly  speak  in  the  same  sense  as  a “servant.” 
It  is,  rather,  a faithful  friend  and  an  intimate  com- 
panion who  helps  us  to  enjoy  and  to  understand  what 
we  see,  to  remember  what  we  do  not  wish  to  forget. 

At  first,  this  new  friend  seemed  but  a pretty  child 
to  amuse  man’s  lighter  hours,  but  as  the  years  have 
brought  fuller  growth,  the  child  has  become  man  and 
has  won  the  right  to  be  thought  of  as  a most  powerful 
helper  in  all  man’s  work. 

As  printing  makes  the  result  of  thinking  immortal, 
so  the  camera  has  made  lasting  the  result  of  seeing ; 
as  books  tell  us  what  men  thought  in  the  past,  so  will 
the  camera  tell  the  future  what  men  saw  in  the  past. 
All  over  the  world  the  camera  shutters  are  snapping  ; 
at  every  instant  thousands  of  cameras  are  recording 
the  forms  of  clouds,  of  waves,  the  beauties  of  land- 
scape, the  happenings  in  the  great  drama  of  nature. 
They  are  noting  for  our  children  how  their  fathers  and 
mothers  lived,  what  were  their  surroundings,  what 
they  did.  They  are  saving  from  forgetfulness  types  of 
men  and  women,  quaint  happenings,  occurrences  both 
commonplace  and  strange. 

From  the  life  of  a king  to  the  coming  of  a butterfly 


PREFACE 


viii 

from  its  cocoon,  the  camera  records  all ; nothing  is 
too  great  or  too  small  for  its  attention.  None  of  us 
are  too  grand  or  too  obscure  to  be  left  out  of  its  dark 
box.  By  its  aid  we  may  see  again  the  faces  of  those 
who  are  gone,  may  recall  places  that  are  changed  or 
beyond  our  reach,  may  live  again  in  our  pleasures  and 
see  again  the  sights  that  have  delighted  us.  From  the 
camera  come  pictures  moving  us  to  laughter  or  to 
tears  ; records  that  teach  the  wisest  or  explain  what  is 
deep  to  the  simplest.  Perhaps  as  well  as  being  his 
daily  friend  and  companion,  it  may  become  man’s 
most  useful  helper. 


Contents 


I.  Some  Introductory  Notions 
II.  What  the  Camera  Is  ...  . 

III.  General  Principles  of  the  Process  . 

IV.  Choosing  a Camera  .... 

V.  First  Use  of  the  Camera 

VI.  Learning  About  Exposures. 

VII.  First  Steps  in  Developing  . 

VIII.  Making  a Print 

IX.  What  to  Photograph  . . . . 

X.  Outdoor  Photography  .... 
XL  Photography  Indoors  .... 

XII.  From  Rule  of  Thumb  to  Knowledge  . 

XIII.  About  Lenses  and  Their  Qualities  . 

XIV.  The  Camera  and  Its  Attachments  . 

XV. , Practical  Hints  on  Exposure  . 

XVI.  IModern  Developing  .... 
XVII.  Further  Remarks  on  Developing  — 
After  Treatment  of  Negatives 
XVIII.  Printing  — Methods  and  Processes  . 
XIX.  Light  and  Its  Action  .... 
XX.  The  Beginnings  of  Photography 
XXL  From  the  Daguerreotype  to  the  Dry 

Plate  

XXII.  A Glance  at  Modern  Photography  . 
XXIII.  Colour  Work  and  Other  Applica- 
tions OF  Photography 
XXIV.  Some  Hints  on  the  Chemical  Side 

Appendix 

Index  ....  . • 


1 

10 

24 

34 

47 

04 

75 

83 

90 

100 

122 

133 

139 

152 

102 

175 

188 

199 
211 
223 

239 

249 

200 
272 
283 
323 


IX 


I 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

“The  Yoang  Artist  ” ......  Frontispiece 

Camera  Accessories 48 

“ The  Man  on  the  Box  ” 68 

“ Broadway  in  a Snow-Storm  ’’ 88 

Effective  Photographs  Taken  With  Small  Cameras  . . . 102 

Instantaneous  Photography 120 

A Pinhole  Photograph 140 

The  Magnifying  Power  of  a Telephoto  Lens  . . . . l."0 

Camera  Accessories 156 

Photograph  made  with  a Focal-plane  Shutter,  at  Slow  Speed  . 160 

The  Effect  of  Focal  Length  in  Photography  . . . .166 

“ Sunlight  on  Surf  ” 102 

A “ Firelight  ” Photograph 202 

Monument  to  Daguerre 226 

A Night  Scene  ..........  256 

An  Unusual  Scene  in  New  York  Harbour  \ 270 

A Duplicate  Portrait  I .... 


xi 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Photography  for  Young  People 

CHAPTER  I 

SOME  INTRODUCTORY  NOTIONS 

Photography  and  its  value  in  general  — As  a pleasure  and  as  a useful 
helper  — What  can  be  done  with  simple  apparatus — What  the 
amateur  should  know  — What  part  of  the  work  he  should  do. 

In  a number  of  that  bright  little  magazine  for  ama- 
teur photographers,  the  Photo-Miniature^  an  opin- 
ion is  quoted  from  John  Richard  Green,  the  English 
historian,  to  the  effect  that  photography  was  “ the 
greatest  boon  conferred  on  the  poorer  classes  ” by  re- 
cent inventions. 

This  opinion  was  called  out  by  a talk  he  had  with  a 
friend  who  was  praising  schools,  museums,  and  other 
things  tending  to  make  the  poor  man’s  lot  happier. 
But  Green  points  out  that  by  making  it  cheap  to  own 
portraits  of  one’s  family,  the  happiness  of  the  poor, 
who  by  the  need  of  making  their  living  are  often  sep- 
arated from  one  another,  has  been  increased  more  than 
any  one  can  tell.  As  Green  said,  the  little  row  of  por- 
traits over  the  fireplace  still  keeps  alive  in  the  home 
the  memory  of  “ the  boy  who  has  gone  to  Canada,  the 
girl  out  at  service,”  the  little  one  who  died,  the  old 
grandfather  who  still  remains  in  his  country  home. 
The  writer  w'ho  quotes  this  opinion  says  also  that 
these  words  carry  the  more  weight  since  Green  had 
been  for  years  a hard-working  clergyman  in  a poor 

1 


2 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


district  of  London,  and  knew  intimately  the  life  of 
the  poor. 

This  is  the  side  of  photography  of  which  we  all 
know  something,  and  of  late  years  the  little  home 
pictures  have  become  so  common  that  they  serve  as 
records  of  more  than  mere  portraiture.  At  first  they 
were,  of  course,  stiff  and  dignified  pictures  of  members 
of  one’s  family ; but  now  there  is  no  side  of  family  life, 
no  daily  happening,  however  trivial,  no  cause  for  tears 
or  laughter,  that  may  not  have  its  lasting  record  in 
one’s  pictorial  diary.  While  it  has  gained  greatly  in 
value  as  a profession  or  a business,  and  has  widened 
enormously  as  an  art  and  science,  it  has  likewise 
become  a most  fascinating  pursuit,  amusement,  and 
pastime. 

According  to  the  use  we  each  make  of  it  is  the  time 
we  can  afford  the  camera.  If  it  is  to  be  no  more  than 
a means  of  fun,  we  shall  choose  in  all  ways  the  easiest 
methods,  shall  not  trouble  ourselves  to  learn  more 
than  to  press  a button,  and  shall  care  little  about  the 
expense  or  the  waste  coming  from  the  numerous 
failures  we  shall  be  sure  to  have,  being  satisfied  by  an 
occasional  pleasing  or  amusing  picture,  the  result  of 
some  rare  good  luck. 

But  no  young  person  who  is  wise  and  foreseeing 
should  be  content  with,  mere  dabbling  in  the  art. 
There  is  too  great  a chance  that  any  one  of  us  may 
find  that  the  work  of  the  camera  will  play  a most 
important  part  in  his  future.  There  is  hardly  a busi- 
ness or  profession  in  which  photography  does  not  have 
an  important  place,  even  if  photography  were  not  often 
a means  of  money-making  in  itself. 

As  a means  of  education,  too,  picture-making  with 


SOME  INTRODUCTORY  NOTIONS 


3 


the  camera  may  nowadays  be  compared  not  unfavour- 
ably with  drawing  itself,  and  a great  authority  on 
education,  the  French  architect,  Viollet-le-Duc,  de- 
clared drawing  to  be  the  true  basis  of  all  practical  edu- 
cation. He  who  uses  the  camera  soon  comes  to  look 
with  a new  eye  upon  everything.  If  he  is  already  a 
draughtsman,  he  will  find  that  the  taking  of  photo- 
graphs has  increased  his  power  of  composition,  or  put- 
ting together  of  pictures ; his  knowledge  of  light  and 
shade,  his  familiarity  with  outline,  his  knowledge  of 
form ; and  particularly  with  the  attitudes,  gestures, 
and  motions,  of  living  things. 

Indeed,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  artist  in  his 
long  study  of  a single  subject  acquires  such  a training 
as  comes  to  the  photographer  who  can  study  in  the 
same  length  of  time  twenty  subjects.  For  if’  the 
camera  is  used  with  thought,  as  it  must  be  by  those 
who  become  interested  in  its  work,  it  induces  the 
photographer  to  study  a hundred  possibilities  of  pic- 
ture-making for  every  photograph  he  takes.  It  will 
teach  him  perspective,  it  will  acquaint  him  with  the 
beauties  of  landscape,  and,  indeed,  should  make  him 
an  artist,  with  the  one  exception  that  it  does  not  yet 
train  directly  the  colour-sense  except  as  it  gives  keen- 
ness of  eyesight  and  inclines  the  mind  to  notice  the 
beauties  of  natural  appearances.  But  even  colour  pho- 
tography is  sure  to  be  accomplished. 

More  and  more  every  year  are  men  and  women  find- 
ing their  work  in  different  fields  of  science  ; and  there 
is  no  scientific  work  which  does  not  depend  more  or 
less  upon  the  use  of  the  camera.  To  the  student  of 
nature  it  has  become  indispensable,  and  has  made  him 
able  to  do  mechanically  the  picturing  of  the  living 


4 


PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


animal  or  plant  in  a way  that  was  once  most  imper- 
fectly done  by  laborious  use  of  the  pen  and  pencil, 
even  when  these  were  wielded  by  genius.  In  botany, 
geology,  forestry,  in  surveying,  in  exploring,  in  medi- 
cine, in  astronomy,  the  camera  is  playing  an  increasing 
part  as  years  go  on. 

George  lies,  in  his  “ Flame,  Electricity,  and  the 
Camera,”  has  called  the  camera  the  “ handmaiden  of 
literature,”  and  has,  in  the  book  mentioned,  shown 
something  of  the  thousand  and  one  services  ren- 
dered by  photography  in  every  field  of  human 
work. 

In  all  these  fields  our  boys  and  girls  will  find  their 
life-work,  and  that  work  will  be  the  easier  if  they 
have  already  acquired  cleverness  in  the  use  of  their 
cameras  and  ability  to  understand  its  results.  It  is 
not  at  all  improbable  that  before  many  years  a knowl- 
edge of  photography  will  become  a branch  of  educa- 
tion considered  an  essential  to  every  boy  and  girl  who 
means  to  enter  the  battle  of  life  well  equipped  to  at- 
tain success. 

But  even  were  all  this  not  so,  even  if  we  could  con- 
sider the  magic  “ dark  box  ” as  nothing  more  impor- 
tant than  a pleasant  companion,  the  reader  is  assured 
that  the  time  spent  in  learning  how  to  use  it  and  to 
understand  what  it  can  do  is  well  spent  merely  as  an 
education  in  science  and  in  learning  how  to  see  and  to 
observe  understandingly.  Just  as  the  college  student 
'studies  many  branches  simply  because  they  prepare 
'him  to  acquire  other  things  more  readily,  so  the  ama- 
teur photographer  — using  the  word  “ amateur  ” in  its 
right  sense,  as  meaning  one  who  practices  photography 
for  pleasure  — will  learn  from  it  how  to  understand 


SOME  INTRODUCTORY  NOTIONS 


6 


better  the  world  around  him  and  to  enjoy  more  what- 
ever brings  pleasure  to  the  eye. 

We  believe,  however,  that  no  mere  words  can  give 
as  clear  an  idea  of  what  photography  is  and  of  what 
it  brings  to  him  who  practices  it,  as  will  come  from 
even  a mere  beginner’s  first  use  of  the  art  itself. 
With  the  use  of  the  camera  and  the  pleasure  of  pic- 
ture-making will  come  the  curiosity  as  to  hows  and 
whys  and  the  desire  for  skill  in  accomplishment  that 
will  lead  the  amateur  to  read  more  widely  and  to 
practice  with  more  freedom  the  rules  that  are  laid 
down  for  his  help. 

For  this  reason  we  shall  not  ask  you  to  begin  with 
the  history  of  how  photography  came  to  be,  nor  with 
long  explanations  pointing  out  just  the  laws  according 
to  which  experts  are  guided  in  giving  us  our  rules  of 
working.  We  shall,  instead,  suppose  that  you  either 
have,  or  mean  to  have,  a camera,  and  that  you  will,  as 
soon  as  you  have  knowledge  enough,  begin  at  once 
the  taking  of  pictures  and  the  making  of  prints. 

We  shall,  therefore,  begin  by  telling  you  a little  of 
how  photography  is  done,  and  then  proceed  by  advis- 
ing you  how  to  choose  a camera,  or  to  make  the 'best 
use  of  those  not  too  complicated  for  the  beginner. 
Fortunately,  most  of  us  cannot  afford  to  confuse  our- 
selves by  doing  elementary  work  with  the  compli- 
cated machines  needed  by  the  advanced  photographer. 
We  begin  with  the  simpler  work,  try  to  do  that  well, 
and  thus  learn  to  walk  before  we  run. 

Fortunately  also,  there  is  very  little  that  cannot  be 
done  even  with  the  simpler  forms  of  apparatus.  The 
more  complicated  cameras  and  the  more  difficult  proc- 
esses are  seldom  needed.  A recent  photographic 


6 


PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


annual  gives  us  the  marvel  of  a humming-bird  pictured 
in  the  air  apparently  with  motionless  wings.  We  see 
in  similar  journals,  or  in  the  periodical  press,  examples 
of  other  triumphs  of  skill  — objects  taken  in  rapid 
motion,  photographs  taken  on  a large  scale,  flashlight 
jungle  pictures,  views  showing  feats  of  mountain 
climbing  that  must  have  been  secured  at  the  risk  of 
the  photographer’s  neck  — but  we  shall  come  to  all 
these  soon  enough. 

A really  good  photographer  is  one  who  will  secure 
results  that  are  beautiful,  valuable,  or  interesting, 
even  if  he  has  no  better  apparatus  than  a pasteboard 
box  with  a pinhole  lens,  or  a cheap  camera  that  con- 
sists of  little  more  than  this  with  the  addition  of  a 
tiny  lens.  So  do  not  let  the  fact  that  you  cannot  own 
an  expensive  camera  and  cannot  afford  hours  of  study 
to  acquire  new  processes,  discourage  you  in  seeking  to 
become  entitled  to  the  name  of  a skillful  photog- 
rapher. The  very  best  work  that  brings  about  a 
good  photograph  is  done  within  the  human  skull,  and 
so  it  will  ever  continue  to  be. 

The  camera  and  its  plates,  the  prepared  papers  and 
the  necessary  chemicals  are  to-day  made  ready  for  our 
use,  and  are  of  such  excellence  that  no  one  can  fairl}' 
complain  of  his  apparatus.  If  there  is  a failure  to 
secure  good  pictures  the  chances  are  that  the  trouble 
is  with  yourself  — either  lack  of  care,  lack  of  skill,  or 
lack  of  knowledge.  You  may  for  a small  amount 
to-day  procure  a better  camera,  better  materials  — 
better  everything  — than  the  early  photographers 
could  command  without  the  exercise  of  their  highest 
skill  and  the  most  painstaking  care. 

In  fact,  the  modern  photographer  who  fails  to  make 


SOME  INTRODUCTORY  NOTIONS 


7 


good  pictures  should  be  ashamed  to  bring  to  nothing 
by  his  carelessness  the  elaborate  and  excellent  work 
of  the  manufacturers  who  furnish  him  with  his 
apparatus. 

The  reader  of  this  book  is  asked  to  believe,  at  the 
beginning,  that  in  spite  of  all  he  may  be  told  by 
dealers  interested  in  making  him  spend  money,  he  can- 
not take  good  photographs  unless  he  understands  the 
reasons  for  what  he  does.  By  accident  any  one  may 
now  and  then  get  a good  picture,  especially  if  he  has 
a great  part  of  the  work  done  for  him ; but  any  one 
who  uses  a camera  will  find  it  an  expensive  and 
irritating  instrument  unless  he  learns  how  to  use  it, 
and  why  he  does  things. 

But  one  can  learn  easily,  and  then  the  camera  will 
be  a delight,  an  educator,  and  a most  valuable 
companion  all  one’s  life. 

The  study  of  photography  is  full  of  interest  and 
pleasure.  Even  a little  knowledge  will  not  only 
greatly  increase  your  ability  to  take  good  pictures  but 
will  also  teach  you  to  enjoy  the  work  of  others  — to 
know  how  to  appreciate  the  thousands  of  pictures 
reproduced  in  books,  papers,  and  magazines,  or  made 
by  amateurs. 

We  need  not  know  all  the  science  of  the  subject, 
but  we  may  easily  know  the  hows  and  whys  of  the 
camera,  the  plate,  the  developing  and  fixing  chemicals, 
and  the  most  usual  printing  methods. 

All  this  depends  first  on  knowing  something  about 
light  — for  the  photograph  is  the  child  of  light,  and 
obeys  the  laws  of  its  parent. 

Next  we  must  become  acquainted  with  the  machine 
that  is  used  for  taking  pictures,  so  that  we  know  the 


8 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


purpose  of  each  of  its  parts  and  can  understand  how 
it  is  to  be  made  ready  for  picture-making  under 
different  circumstances.  And  here,  nowadays,  many 
will  stop,  at  least  for  a while.  They  will  be  satisfied 
to  make  the  exposures,  and  will  turn  over  all  the  rest 
of  the  work  to  others. 

We  desire  to  say  that  there  can  hardly  be  a greater 
mistake  for  the  young  photographer  than  to  be  con- 
tent to  learn  only  the  use  of  the  camera  without 
learning  also  to  do  every  bit  of  the  work  that  can  be 
done  by  the  amateur.  There  are  certain  things  which 
it  is  better  to  buy  ready-made.  For  example,  the 
preparing  of  plates  and  films  is  so  delicate  a piece  of 
work,  and  is  so  much  better  done  by  the  great  firms 
who  sell  the  best-known  brands,  that  there  can  be  no 
good  reason  for  trying  to  make  one’s  own  emulsion  and 
to  prepare  one’s  own  plates  or  films,  except  as  a matter 
of  study.  But  as  to  the  developing  and  printing,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  no  one  can  be  a good 
photographer  or  can  know  what  may  be  done  with  the 
camera  unless  he  learns  to  develop  his  own  negatives 
and  to  print  from  them  by  at  least  the  usual  proc- 
esses. 

Perhaps  not  every  reader  knows  that  of  late  years 
there  has  been  a complete  change  in  the  whole  art  of 
taking  photographs.  There  was  a time  w’hen  the 
amateur  who  meant  to  go  into  photography  found 
himself  obliged  to  set  apart  a special  room,  to  stock  it 
with  a great  array  of  chemicals,  to  provide  all  sorts 
of  apparatus,  and  to  devote  a large  part  of  his  time  to 
picture-making.  Some  writers  on  the  subject  regret 
that  these  days  have  passed  away,  believing  that 
when  amateurs  were  forced  to  do  every  step  of  the 


SOME  INTRODUCTORY  NOTIONS 


9 


work  they  became  interested  and  acquainted  with  all 
the  facts,  and  so  were  likely  to  make  discoveries  and 
improvements. 

But  the  subject  to-day  is  far  too  big  to  be  covered 
by  any  one  amateur,  and  in  order  to  study  a part  of 
the  subject  thoroughly,  or  to  learn  enough  to  make 
good  pictures,  does  not  require  either  special  dark 
rooms,  many  chemicals,  or  a large  part  of  your  time. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  even  for  one  who  has  no 
purpose  beyond  the  making  of  pictures  that  will 
please  himself  and  his  friends,  to  understand  what 
takes  the  picture,  meaning  by  this  the  action  of  the 
light  and  the  use  of  the  camera.  He  must  also  know 
at  least  the  commoner  ways  of  developing  and  the 
most  usual  methods  of  printing. 

In  fact,  there  is,  even  in  this  simple  outline,  plenty 
of  opportunity  to  study  out  the  best  ways  and  to 
become  skillful  in  them;  for  although  the  directions 
given  by  those  who  sell  cameras  and  materials  are 
made  as  simple  as  can  be,  and  need  only  to  be 
followed  in  order  to  get  excellent  results,  yet  the 
amateur  will  soon  find  that  there  are  cases  arising  con- 
stantly that  require  him  to  think  for  himself  and  to 
make  slight  changes  in  what  he  is  directed  to  do. 


CHAPTER  II 

WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


Derivation  of  “photography” — The  nature  of  light  — What  light  is 
used  in  photography  — The  rays  of  the  spectrum  and  their  powers 
— Which  rays  are  used  in  photography  — The  purpose  of  the 
camera  — The  simplest  form  of  camera  — Explanation  of  the  pin- 
hole camera  — The  bending  of  light  rays  — How  a prism  acts  — A 
lens  like  a number  of  prisms  put  together  — The  purpose  of  the 
lens  in  the  camera. 

The  names  that  we  use  for  things  nearly  always,  if 
we  understand  how  they  came  to  be  given,  show  us 
what  those  things  were  in  their  simple  form.  The 
word  photograph  comes,  as  you  probably  know,  from 
two  simple  Greek  words,  v'-tS?  and  ypd<ptiv.  The  first 
comes  from  a verb  that  means  “ show,”  and  thus  signi- 
fies “ the  thing  that  shows  other  things  ” ; that  is, 
light.  The  second  word  comes  from  a verb  that  is  of 
great  use  in  making  compounds.  It  is  often  spoken 
of  as  meaning  “ write,”  but  really,  in  Greek,  the  verb 
had  a wider  meaning  and  was  more  in  meaning  like 
our  word  “ mark.”  It  could  be  used  of  any  action 
that  left  a trace,  a mark,  a cut,-or  a print.  So  the 
compound  word,  “photograph,”  really  means  to  mark 
by  light,  or  what  has  been  marked  by  light. 

In  order,  then,  to  understand  exactly  what  pho- 
tography is,  we  shall  need,  first,  to  know  something 
of  the  nature  of  light.  Of  course  the  great  source 
from  which  we  get  most  of  our  light  is  the  sun,  and 
in  early  days  photographs  were  sometimes  thought  of 
as  “sun-pictures”;  but  it  is  a wrong  way  to  think  of 

10 


WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


11 


the  subject  to  look  upon  the  sun  as  if  it  were  the  only 
source  of  the  light  used  in  photography.  Any  kind  of 
light,  whether  coming  from  the  sun,  from  the  moon, 
from  the  stars,  from  the  action  of  chemicals  on  one 
another,  from  electric  action,  or  from  even  more  un- 
usual sources,  such  as  the  action  of  radium  and  other 
light-giving  substances  or  living  creatures  that  are 
phosphorescent,  may  be  used  in  making  photographs, 
and  has  been  so  used  by  scientific  men  in  studying 
nature. 

Neither  is  it  right  to  think  of  photographs  always 

pictures.  To  speak  correctly  we  must  include 
under  the  name  “ photograph  ” any  visible  effect  of 
light  upon  substances. 

It  may  be  well  to  show  that  this  is  not  merely  a 
fussy  way  of  talking.  For  blunders  will  be  made,  if 
we  think  of  photographs  as  being  caused  only  by  the 
direct  or  indirect  light  of  the  sun.  In  handling  mod- 
ern dry-plates  any  one  who  thought  that  they  would 
not  be  affected  except  by  the  sun  or  by  daylight, 
would  be  careless  about  exposing  them  too  long  to  the 
light  of  his  ruby  lantern,  or  might  not  understand  that 
a roll  of  film  could  be  marked  in  branching  lines  when 
unrolling  it  too  rapidly  had  made  it  give  out  electric 
sparks. 

These  two  instances  are  given  to  show  that  it  is 
best  from  the  beginning  to  understand  that  a clear 
idea  of  photography  teaches  us  that  it  has  to  do  with 
any  source  of  light.  So,  in  trying  to  understand  the 
nature  of  light,  we  must  get  an  idea  of  light  in  general, 
at  the  same  time  remembering  that  to  us  on  this  earth 
the  most  important  light,  of  course,  is  that  which 
comes  from  the  sun. 


12  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


The  reader  must  not  get  an  idea,  however,  that  the 
sun,  or  any  other  source  of  light  acts  directly  on  the 
plates  within  the  camera,  as  it  does  on  the  paper  with 
which  we  print  from  the  negative  afterward.  The 
rays  that  enter  the  camera  through  its  lens  are  those 
received  from  the  objects  that  we  photograph  — not 
reflected  from  them  unchanged,  as  from  a mirror  or 
polished  surface,  but  partly  absorbed,  and  partly 
modified  in  many  ways,  according  to  the  colours  and 
the  dark  or  light  places  in  the  objects.  When  we  say 
that  we  see  dark  and  light  in  a scene,  we  mean  that 
we  receive  in  our  eyes  light-waves  in  greater  or  less 
amount;  and  when  we  say  that  we  see  different 
colours,  we  mean  that  certain  parts  of  the  scene  con- 
duct to  our  eyes  only  red  rays  or  yellow  rays,  absorb- 
ing all  the  other  kinds.  Just  as  every  separate  shade 
or  colour  affects  our  eyes  differently  from  every  other, 
so  it  affects  the  plates,  making  a different  impression 
on  different  parts  of  it.  You  can  understand  this 
better  when  you  see  the  beautiful  image  the  lens 
throws  on  the  ground  glass  ; and  it  may  interest  you 
to  know  that  the  eyes  are  in  fact  little  cameras,  each 
with  a perfect  lens  and  a sensitive  surface  back  of  it, 
on  which  the  images  are  thrown. 

We  expect  in  a later  part  of  this  book  to  give  a 
rather  full  explanation  of  what  light  Is  supposed  to  be, 
and  of  how  it  acts  to  make  changes  in  the  plate  that  en- 
able us  to  develop  a negative.  At  present  we  shall 
tell  only  the  few  things  that  must  be  known  by  every 
practical  worker  to  keep  him  from  making  mistakes 
and  to  guide  him  in  the  use  of  his  camera  and  its  fit- 
tings, as  well  as  the  _after  work  of  getting  a finished 
negative  and  from  it  a finished  print. 


WHAT  THE  CAAIERA  IS 


13 


These  few  facts  have  first  to  do  with  the  kind  of 
light  that  makes  photographs.  It  will  be  explained 
later  that  in  the  ordinary  light  of  day  there  are  differ- 
ent sorts  of  light  rays,  each  having  a different  effect ; 
but,  just  now,  it  is  enough  for  us  to  remember  that  the 
light  rays  which  make  a photograph  are  not  altogether 
the  same  as  the  rays  by  which  we  see. 

But  perhaps  it  would  be  plainer  to  say  that  jpart 
of  the  light  rays  are  best  for  seeing,  while  others  are 
best  for  taking  photographs.  When  light  is  broken  up 
by  means  of  the  prism  into  the  different  coloured  rays 
which  go  to  make  white  light,  we  shall  find,  broadly 
speaking,  that  there  are  three  portions  differing  in 
colour  — the  red,  the  yellow,  and  the  blue.  Of  these, 
those  rays  that  are  found  toward  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum  have  very  little  power  on  the  ordinary  photo- 
graphic plate;  those  around  the  yellow  part,  while 
slightly  photographic,  are  at  their  best  in  helping  us  to 
see.  Toward  and  beyond  the  blue  end  of  the  spec- 
trum we  find  the  most  active  rays  used  for  photography. 
This  will  show  at  once  that  the  eye  cannot  surely  tell  us 
whether  a subject  for  the  camera  is  going  to  affect  the 
plate  in  the  same  degree  that  it  affects  the  eye. 

This  is  well  known  even  to  beginners  with  the 
camera  who  have  tried  to  photograph  flowers,  for  ex- 
ample, and  have  discovered  that,  so  far.  as  the  photo- 
graphic plate  is  concerned,  it  makes  little  difference 
whether  a flower  be  blue,  or  white,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  whether  it  be  red  or  nearly  black.  The  blue  — 
together  with  purple  and  violet  — affects  the  plate 
nearly  as  much  as  the  white;  whereas  the  weak 
and  the  red  and  the  yellow  rays  all  fail  to  produce 
much,  if  any,  effect  through  the  camera. 


14  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


By  this  state  of  things  it  is  brought  about  that  we 
must,  in  photography,  always  bear  in  mind  that  we 
are  trying  to  use,  not  the  rays  that  we  see,  but  the 
rays  that  act  most  through  the  camera.  In  many 
cases,  of  course,  this  will  not  make  a very  great  differ- 
ence, but  now  and  then  the  knowledge  of  the  different 
rays  will  make  all  the  difference  between  a good  picture 
and  a bad  one. 

Of  course  the  taking  of  a photograph  means  no 
more  than  causing  the  proper  light-rays  to  act  upon  a 
surface  made  ready  for  them  ; and  the  camera,  whether 
it  be  a mere  box  with  a tiny  hole  in  the  end  or  a most 
elaborate  instrument  having  a great  number  of  attach- 
ments, is,  after  all,  nothing  but  a means  for  the  shut- 
ting out  of  all  light  except  the  particular  part  that  we 
wish  to  use,  and  for  letting  in  those  raj's  that  are  to 
make  the  picture,  in  the  right  amount  and  for  the 
right  length  of  time  to  act  upon  the  plate. 

This  may  seem  to  the  reader  at  first  as  a primer- 
like way  of  stating  a well-known  fact,  but  it  will  be 
found,  when  we  take  up  the  question  of  using  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  camera  and  using  them  rightl}',  that 
we  shall  in  this  simple  idea  have  a key  to  the  right 
use  of  the  most  complicated  apparatus. 

We  know  that  the  image  within  the  camera  is 
formed  by  separating  from  the  numberless  rays  which 
are  reflected  from  or  sent  out  from  any  object,  enough 
of  them  to  give  us  an  image  more  or  less  distinct  ac- 
cording to  what  we  want  to  have  upon  the  plate,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  shut  out  all  the  other  rays  that 
would  interfere  with  the  correct  image. 

The  simplest  form  of  camera,  then,  is  a mere  light- 
tight box  that  will  keep  out  all  rays  of  light  except 


WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


15 


those  let  in  at  one  tiny  opening  or  gate.  If  this  gate  is 
not  small,  the  rays  coming  through  it  will  be  mixed 
up  and  we  shall  have  no  clear  image  formed;  but,  if 
we  make  the  gate  small  enough,  we  shall  shut  out  all 
except  a few  chosen  rays,  and  these  will  give  us  an 
image  of  whatever  is  opposite  the  little  opening,  for  all 
light  rays  travel  in  a straight  line  if  not  interfered 
with.  (Diagram  I.) 


If,  in  such  a camera,  we  put  a sensitive  plate  so  as 
to  receive  this  image,  we  can  take  photographs,  al- 
though we  have  no  lens,  rightly  so-called,  no  shutter, 
no  means  of  focusing  and  no  plate-holders  or  other  aids 
to  the  mere  dark  box  with  a hole  in  it. 

Let  us  keep  this  in  mind  as  a foundation  on  which 
to  build  a right  idea  of  photography,  for  in  this  simple 
box  we  have  all  that  is  really  needed  to  take  a picture. 
But  so  soon  as  we  ask  to  do  more,  we  shall  have  to 
improve  this  box  in  many  ways.  The  little  hole,  in 
order  to  make  a clear  image,  will,  as  experiment  shows, 


A 


C 


Diagram  I 


16  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


need  to  be  only  about  large  enough  to  let  a fine  sew- 
ing-needle pass  through  it.  Just  so  soon  as  one  tries 
to  make  a larger  opening  to  let  in  more  light,  he  will 
find  that  the  image  becomes  confused  and  spoiled,  be- 
cause the  rays  of  light  go  through  in  all  directions  and 
the  effect  is  simply  to  light  up  the  whole  plate,  instead 
of  forming  an  image  on  it. 

If  we  make  a big  opening  it  is  just  as  if  we  should 
punch  a great  number  of  little  needle-holes  close  to- 
gether, causing  their  images  to  overlap  one  another  so 
that  we  could  not  distinguish  one  from  the  other,  and 
so  that  the  different  coloured  rays  would  be  all  mixed 
up  together,  forming  a white  light,  and  merely  light- 
ing the  plate  instead  of  forming  a set  of  pictures  upon 
it. 

The  whole  subject  of  lenses,  stops,  and  focusing, 
depends  upon  understanding  this  state  of  things. 

All  the  space  around  us  is  full  of  crossing  and  re- 
crossing images.  They  interfere  with  one  another 
when  received  on  a surface  unless  we  can  shut  off  all 
but  one,  or  can  cause  more  than  one  to  fall  exactly 
upon  the  same  space  inside  the  camera.  By  means  of 
the  pinhole  we  make  what  is  really  one  image,  for  al- 
though a number  of’  light  rays  may  go  through 
together,  yet  the  images  they  form  are  so  nearly  in 
the  same  place  that  we  see  a picture  almost  clear. 
But  it  is  not  entirely  clear,  and  so  the  image  formed 
by  the  pinhole  is  always  a little  blurred. 

Now  let  us  see  how  a lens  betters  matters.  We  have 
seen  that  the  few  rays  coming  through  a very  small 
opening  are  kept  separate,  and  that  the  image  made 
by  them  is  not  confused.  If,  now,  we  try  to‘tnake  the 
hole  larger,  we  get  confused  images,  because  it  is  the 


WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


17 


same  as  if  a lot  of  small  holes  were  put  close  together, 
each  forming  an  image  at  a different  place.  What  we 
wish  to  do  is  to  make  a big  gateway  so  that  we  can 
get  as  many  rays  as  possible,  and  yet  to  bring  all  these 
rays  into  the  path  that  would  be  travelled  by  them  if 
they  all  had  to  come  through  the  one  small  pinhole; 
that  is,  we  want  to  hend  them  from  their  straight  line 
of  travel  and  send  each  ray  where  the  other  ra}'s 
coming  from  the  same  point  of  the  object  are  coming. 

To  help  make  this  important  matter  clear,  let  us 
suppose  that  we  have  three  boxes,  each  with  a pinhole 
in  it,  and  each  making  an  image.  Now  let  us  join  these 
three  boxes  and  make  a sort  of  a treble  box  with  three 
fronts  and  one  back ; 


If  we  could  take  the  three  images  formed  by  the 
three  pinholes  and  make  all  of  them  fall  in  exactly  the 
same  place,  we  should  have  an  image  three  times  as 
bright  and  clear  as  any  one  of  the  boxes  would  make 
alone. 

But  we  can  do  just  this  thing  if  we  put  into  two  of 
the  pinholes  little  prisms  that  will  bend  the  rays  of 
light  just  enough  to  bring  all  three  together.  It  will 
be  necessary,  to  see  how  this  is  done,  that  we  should 


18  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


understand  the  effect  of  transparent  things  in  bending 
the  rays  of  light  from  their  paths,  for  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  if  we  should  so  bend  the  rays  we  could  bring  all 
the  images  together.  This  bending  is  found  to  come 
whenever  the  rays  of  light  pass  from  a thicker  to  a 
thinner  substance,  or  from  a thinner  to  a thicker 
medium.  Experiment  proves  this,  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary for  us  just  now  to  know  more  than  that  the  path 
of  the  rays  is  changed.  To  understand  just  how  light- 
rays  are  thus  bent  would  require  a long  study  into  the 
theory  of  light  waves.  In  fact,  no  one  fully  under- 
stands it. 

Perhaps  the  easiest  illustration  of  this  bending  of 
the  rays  is  observed  when  we  thrust  a stick  into  the 
water.  We  know  that  the  stick  does  not  bend,  and 
yet  any  one  who  tries  the  experiment  will  see  that  it 
looks  bent  where  it  enters  the  water.  This  is  be- 
cause the  path  of  the  rays  of  light  is  changed.  In 
going  from  air  into  glass  and  from  glass  into  the  air 
again  there  are  two  bendings  of  a ray  of  light.  If 
this  ray  goes  through  glass  having  parallel  faces,  as  in 
the  case  of  a plate  glass  window  for  example,  the  ray 
is  first  bent  from  its  path  on  entering  the  glass,  and  is 
then  bent  back  again  just  as  much  on  going  out,  so 
that  the  general  direction  of  the  ray  is  not  changed. 
(See  Diagram  III.) 

But  if  the  two  faces  of  the  glass  are  not  parallel, 
but  are  inclined  one  to  the  other  as  in  the  case  of  a 
prism,  the  direction  is  changed  upon  entering  the 
prism  and  again  changed  on  coming  out,  but  in  a dif- 
ferent degree,  so  that  the  ray  takes  now  a new  direc- 
tion, which  it  does  not  do  in  going  through  the  pane 
of  a plate  glass  window.  We  can  alter  the  direction 


WHAT  THE  CAMEEA  IS 


19 


of  the  ray  less  or  more  as  we  like,  by  changing  the 
way  in  which  the  two  faces  of  the  prism  are  inclined 
toward  one  another. 


Here,  then,  we  have  a means  of  bringing  more  than 
one  image  sent  out  by  the  same  object  to  the  same 
point.  If  we  arrange  a set  of  prisms  rightly,  we  can 
direct  a number  of  rays  to  the  same  point. 

Thus  in  Diagram  IV  we  see  that  by  two  prisms 
we  can  make  two  rays  from  a single  point  on  one  side 


of  the  lens  meet  at  a single  point  on  the  other  side, 
while  plain  glass  with  parallel  faces  in  the  middle 
would  let  a straight  ray  through  in  the  middle.  By 


20  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


making  a circular  ring  of  prisms  (Diagram  V)a  whole 
ring  of  rays  could  all  be  brought  to  one  point. 

Now  we  have  only  to  suppose  our  ring  of  prisms  to 
be  melted  together  on  the  edges  and  the  centre  to  be 


Diagram  V 


filled  up,  and  we  shall  have  a lens  such  as  is  used  in 
bringing  the  rays  to  a point.  (Diagram  VI.) 

You  will  notice  that  in  these  three  diagrams  I.,  II. 
and  IV.,  we  have  used  the  same  lettering  — A for  the 


Diagram  VI 

top  of  the  object,  B for  the  centre,  G for  the  foot ; a for 
the  top  of  the  image,  b for  the  centre  and  c for  the  foot ; 
and  P stands  for  the  “ pinhole.”  The  line  APa  in 


WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


21 


each  figure  shows  the  course  of  a light  ray  proceeding 
from  A / and  the  course  of  one  proceeding  from 
and  so  on.  If  you  look  at  Diagram  I,  we  think  you 
will  understand  why  the  image  thrown  on  the  plate 
is  always  upside  dow7i,  for  no  rays  from  A can  reach 
C.  In  Diagram  II  we  are  supposing  that  our  three 
pinholes  will  bend  the  rays  just  as  we  want  them  to 
go ; so  there  are  three  rays  from  A,  meeting  at  a,  and 
three  from  C meeting  at  c ; and  therefore  three  im- 
ages of  AC,  one  on  top  of  another.  In  Diagram  IV, 
we  have  merely  taken  away  the  boxes,  leaving  only 
the  prisms,  so  that  you  may  see  how  they  bend  the 
rays.  P cannot  really  mean  “ pinhole  ” in  this  figure, 
therefore,  but  we  use  it  because,  like  a pinhole,  the 
prism  receives  rays  from  A,  B,  and  C,  and  distributes 
them  again  on  the  other  side,  in  reverse  order.  A 
mere  prism  of  course,  cannot  make  an  image^  but  can 
only  bend  rays ; but  a lens,  which  is  like  a,  hundred 
kinds  of  prisms  arranged  rightly  and  then  joined  as  if 
melted  together,  gathers  all  of  the  rays  from  all  of  the 
points  of  the  object  (within  the  angle  of  vision),  and 
bends  each  ray  just  where  it  is  needed  for  making  the 
image.  Thus  we  see  how  different  the  lens  is  from  a 
pinhole,  which  (theoretically  at  least)  lets  in  only  one 
ray  from  each  point  of  the  object.  A lens  is  like  an 
infinite  number  of  pinholes  throwing  their  images  one 
on  top  of  another. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  we  can,  if  we  like,  by 
changing  the  shape  of  the  glass  through  which  rays 
are  sent,  make  the  rays  bend  in  any  direction.  If,  in- 
stead of  putting  our  prisms  thin  edge  outward,  we  put 
them  all  thin  edge  inward  and  suppose  them  again  to 
be  united  into  a lens,  we  would  have  a lens  that  would 


22  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


make  the  rays  separate  or  diverge,  instead  of  uniting. 
(Diagram  VII.)  This  sort  of  lens  also  is  useful  in 
photography.  Later  on  we  shall  explain  the  different 
classes  of  lenses,  but  it  is  enough  now  to  understand 
that  the  simplest  use  of  a lens  is  to  bring  a number  of 
images  within  the  camera  to  the  same  point  and  thus 
to  get  a brighter  image  because  it  is  one  made  up  of  a 
great  number  of  light  rays. 


Diagram  VII 


Having  followed  this  reasoning,  it  is  evident  at  once 
why  a photographer  who  could  have  a lens  \vould 
never  be  satisfied  to  use  the  pinhole,  unless  for  certain 
peculiar  effects.  Since  the  pinhole  uses  only  a very 
small  amount  of  light,  it  takes  a very  long  time  for  its 
image  to  act  upon  the  plate  within  the  camera — so 
long  that  even  under  the  best  circumstances  a pinhole 
might  take  three  or  four  minutes  to  affect  a plate  as 
much  as  a quick  lens  would  do  in  the  five-hundredth 
part  of  a second,  or  less. 

We  therefore  now  understand  why  a camera  must 
be  a light-tight  box  except  where  light  comes  through 


WHAT  THE  CAMERA  IS 


23 


to  make  the  picture,  and  we  also  see  what  use  there  is 
in  the  lens.  These  matters  we  shall  look  into  more 
closely  afterward,  trying  now  only  to  get  the  general 
ideas  necessary  to  practical  work. 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS 

What  receives  the  image  — The  silver  compound  — The  sensitive 
plate  — What  we  must  do  to  the  plate  — Avoiding  light,  pressure, 
moisture,  heat — Putting  the  plate  into  the  right  position  to  re- 
ceive the  image  — Making  sure  the  rays  have  a clear  path  to  the 
plate  — Why  motion  spoils  a picture  — Exposure  depends  on  colour 
and  strength  of  light  — Care  of  the  exposed  plate  — Its  develop- 
ment  — Water  the  true  developer  — The  action  of  the  chemicals  — 
Fixing  the  plate — What  a negative  is  — Using  the  negative  to 
make  a photograph  — The  few  main  principles. 

The  next  matter  is  the  question  of  receiving  the 
image  after  it  is  brought  to  the  right  place  in  the 
camera.  As  before,  we  begin  with  the  simplest  way 
of  thinking  of  the  subject. 

It  has  been  found  that  when  light  is  allowed  to 
shine  upon  certain  compounds  of  silver  it  has  the  prop- 
erty of  changing  them  chemically  — that  is,  it  changes 
their  very  nature.  Two  or  three  of  these  compounds 
have  been  found  especially  sensitive,  and  the  plate  or 
film  that  goes  into  the  camera  consists  essentially  of 
two  things:  first,  the  silver  compound ; second,  what 
holds  it  in  place.  The  way  in  which  the  compound  is 
prepared  results  in  making  a sort  of  a milky  liquid 
containing  the  silver  preparation  mixed  thoroughly 
with  a gummy  substance.  This  is  prepared  and  spread 
upon  a support,  which  may  be  either  glass,  celluloid, 
paper,  or  anything  else  that  will  hold  it  in  place  and 
will  not  interfere  with  its  chemical  properties.  Upon 

24 


GE^^:RAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS  25 


this  it  dries  (all  the  latter  part  of  its  preparation  being 
carried  on  in  a place  free  from  the  chemical  rays  of 
light)  and  with  its  supporting  plates  or  films  is  then 
packed  so  as  to  keep  it  from  any  exposure  to  this  light 
except  such  as  is  given  to  it  in  the  camera  itself. 

It  is  not  important  for  us  yet  to  consider  just  what 
sort  of  a support  is  used  for  the  sensitive  coating,  as 
we  are  going  to  talk  about  things  that  are  necessary 
no  matter  what  sort  of  support  is  used ; and  we  shall 
take  up  the  matter  by  thinking  of  the  three  steps  in 
the  making  of  a picture  on  a sensitive  surface.  We 
will  call  this  surface  a “ plate,”  meaning  by  that  word 
to  include  not  only  glass  plates,  but  films,  whether  in 
rolls  or  cut  into  separate  pieces,  and  also  any  other 
methods  of  preparing  the  coating  to  be  exposed  in  the 
camera. 

The  plate,  then,  comes  to  us  packed  away  from  the 
possibility  of  being  touched  by  light,  and  with  it  we 
shall  have  to  do  three  separate  things.  These  three 
steps  require,  first,  that  the  plate  be  kept  from  all 
things  that  will  make  an  impression  upon  it  until  we 
are  ready  to  expose  it  in  the  camera ; second,  that  the 
plate  be  acted  upon  onhj  by  the  rays  desired  to  make 
the  picture ; and,  thirdly,  that  the  plate  be  changed 
after  exposure  from  a sensitive  plate  into  an  insensi- 
tive negative  that  light  will  not  affect. 

Before  exposing,  one  most  important  thing  is  that 
there  should  be  no  light  rays  allowed  to  strike  it  ex- 
cept rays  that  will  not  produce  an  impression.  So 
much  you  all  know ; but  there  are  other  things  beside 
light  that  will  injure  the  plate  as  much.  For  example, 
it  has  been  found  that  pressure  upon  the  plate  will  hurt 
its  surface  and  will  often  cause  the  plate  to  act  at  the 


2G  rilOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEORLE 


place  upon  which  pressure  has  been  exerted  as  if  light 
had  touched  it  there. 

Then  any  moisture  will  injure  it,  even  so  little  as 
may  come  from  the  touch  of  the  fingers.  Thirdly,  a 
plate  may  be  injured  by  high  temperature.  Con- 
sequently, if  you  desire  to  get  good  pictures,  you  must 
see  that  the  plates  remain  in  the  dark,  or  in  harmless 
light,  that  the  surface  is  untouched,  kept  dry,  and  not 
heated.  If  these  principles  are  borne  in  mind  you  will 
be  able  to  get  the  plate  into  place  within  the  camera 
and  still  keep  it  as  sensitive  as  at  first. 

The  next  step  in  order  is  the  placing  of  the  plate  so 
as  to  receive  the  image  that  is  admitted  into  the 
camera.  As  to  this,  the  main  principles  are  few,  but 
very  important.  You  will  remember  that  in  talking 
about  the  forming  of  an  image  we  have  shown  that 
the  object  of  the  lens  is  to  bring  the  rays  of  images 
all  to  one  plane  (which  in  all  ordinary  cameras  means 
all  to  the  same  fiat  surface),  and  that  the  surface  is 
considered  to  be  one  truly  parallel  to  the  lens;  that  is, 
to  a straight  line  joining  its  edges. 

Consequently  the  plate  must  be  absolutely  upright, 
and  its  right  and  left  sides  must  be  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  front  of  the  camera.  If  either  the  plate  or 
the  lens  does  not  stand  true,  you  will  not  get  a clear 
image  ; if  parts  of  the  image  are  distinct,  other  parts 
are  sure  to  be  indistinct,  because  they  will  fall  upon 
a portion  of  the  plate  at  a different  distance  from  the 
lens.  Usually  a camera  is  carefully  made  so  as  to 
bring  about  the  right  position  of  the  plate,  but  if  the 
camera  gets  out  of  order  so  that  the  plate  no  longer 
stands  true  with  the  lens,  you  cannot  make  good  clear 
images  until  the  fault  be  remedied. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS  27 


The  plate  being  correctly  placed,  we  next  have  to 
admit  the  rays  that  form  the  image  and  allow  them  to 
strike  the  plate ; but  these  rays  must  not  be  interfered 
with.  If,  for  example,  the  plate  is  dusty,  the  rays 
will  strike  the  particles  of  dust,  and  will  not  reach  the 
plate  beneath  them.  If  there  is  dust  floating  in  the 
camera,  these  little  particles  will  come  between  rays 
and  plate.  If  the  lens  is  not  clean,  the  rays  will  not 
get  through  without  some  interference.  It  will  be 
found  that  all  these  necessities  are  remembered  easiest 
by  thinking  of  the  one  principle  that  there  must  be 
nothing  to  interfere  with  the  striking  of  the  rays  upon 
the  sensitive  surface. 

It  follows  also  from  our  purpose  to  have  a clear 
image  formed,  that  the  plate,  the  lens,  and  the  thing 
of  which  we  are  taking  pictures,  must  all  be  motionless 
for  as  long  as  we  need  to  let  the  rays  act  in  making 
the  picture,  since  motion  will  cause  the  forming  of 
more  than  one  image,  and  they  will  blur  one  another. 

To  show  that  this  is  not  a useless  thing  to  remem- 
ber, it  may  be  said  that  whenever  you  find  that  your 
developed  plate  contains  a multiple  of  images  — that 
is,  for  example,  when  you  find  two  or  three  outlines 
for  everything  in  your  picture  — you  may  know  that 
the  fault  has  been  that  the  plate,  camera,  or  object  has 
moved.  If  this  defect  is  not  general,  it  is  a proof  that 
a part  of  what  you  are  photographing  has  moved, 
while  the  camera  and  plate  have  been  steady. 

The  question  of  how  long  we  shall  allow  the  image 
to  rest  upon  the  plate  brings  up  the  whole  question  of 
exposure,  which  must  be  treated  at  a later  time. 
Here  we  are  really  talking  only  of  the  most  general 
rules,  and  we  need  say  only  that  two  things  govern 


28  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  length  of  time  for  the  same  plates  and  camera. 
These  are  the  strength  of  the  light,  and  the  kind  of 
light  it  is. 

To  give  a brief  illustration  : It  will  not  do  to  rely 

upon  what  your  eye  tells  you  alone.  For  example, 
the  light  given  by  a brilliant  red  or  yellow  sunset  is 
very  strong,  so  far  as  the  eye  can  judge ; but  it  is  not 
a light  that  is  strong  to  affect  the  plate ; and  the  same 
thing  to  a less  degree  is  true  of  such  light  as  comes  under 
the  trees  through  the  bright  green  leaves  of  spring- 
time. The  eye  finds  such  rays  strong  for  seeing,  but 
the  plate  finds  them  weak  for  taking  pictures.  Con- 
sequently it  must  be  the  brain  and  knowledge  that  de- 
cides how  long  the  image  is  to  rest  on  the  plate,  not 
the  eye-judgment  of  clearness  and  light-strength. 

It  follows  from  this  that  although  it  is  a help  to 
see  what  image  is  formed  upon  the  ground-glass  of  a 
camera,  or  in  the  finder  of  a camera,  it  is  no  more 
than  a help,  as  we  shall  explain  more  fully  when 
treating  of  exposure. 

So  soon  as  the  exposure  in  the  camera  is  finished, 
Ave  must  take  the  same  care  of  the  plate  as  before  ex- 
posure is  made,  keeping  it  entirely  from  the  things 
mentioned  above  as  injuring  its  sensitive  surface  until 
we  have  changed  it  into  a negative.  And  this  change 
of  a plate  with  a sensitive  surface  into  a negative  is  the 
next  process  to  be  understood. 

To  begin  with,  we  must  say  that  exactly  what  the 
light  does  to  the  plate  nobody  knows.  We  only  know 
that  it  makes  it  ready  for  certain  chemicals  to  act,  and 
that  on  every  part  of  the  plate  those  chemicals  will 
act  more  or  less  just  in  the  same  degree  that  the  light 
has  acted  more  or  less.  Where  the  light  is  strong  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS  29 


chemicals  act  strongly  ; where  it  is  weak,  weakly. 
Where  the  light  has  not  touched  at  all  the  chemical 
has  almost  no  action,  unless  after  a very  long  time. 

Now,  the  general  nature  of  the  chemicals  used  to 
bring  out  the  image  on  the  plate  is  different  from  what 
most  people  suppose.  One  writer,  in  speaking  of  this 
subject  in  a photographic  magazine,  said,  very  truly, 
that  the  really  active  chemical  was  water ; for  the 
chemicals  known  as  “ developers  ” act  simply  to  sep- 
arate water  into  the  two  gases  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Even  the  simplest  knowledge  of  chemistry  teaches 
us  that  water  is  formed  by  the  combining  of  two 
volumes  of  hydrogen  with  one  of  oxygen.  When 
separated,  these  are  gases  ; when  so  united,  they  are  a 
liquid.  The  developers  are  liquids  that  are  eager  to 
take  up  oxygen  from  water ; but  this  taking  up  of 
oxygen  sets  free  the  hydrogen,  and  hydrogen  is  tbe 
chemical  that  acts  upon  the  sensitive  substance  of  the 
plate,  changing  the  compound  of  silver  from  one  that 
is  white  to  one  that  is  dark  wherever  the  light  has 
made  the  compound  of  silver  ready  for  the  change ; 
and  the  hydrogen  acts  just  as  strongl}’’  as  the  light  has 
acted  previously  on  the  compound  at  different  parts  of 
the  image. 

Thus,  if  a plate  be  held  out  in  the  open  sunshine, 
and  then  put  into  the  developer  it  will  turn  dark  all 
over;  for  all  the  compound  is  ready  to  be  changed  by 
the  hydrogen  into  dark  silver.  An  unexposed  plate 
put  into  the  developer  will  remain  unchanged  in  colour 
for  some  time,  but  after  a long  enough  period  there 
will  be  a slow  action  darkening  the  silver  all  over. 
This  action,  however,  is  so  slight  and  so  slow  that 
ordinarily  it  need  not  be  thought  of. 


30  PHOTOGEAl^HY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


We  have  now  a plate  on  the  surface  of  which  there 
remain  after  development  two  kinds  of  silver  com- 
pounds, one  dark  and  insensitive,  the  other  light  and 
still  very  sensitive  to  light.  The  next  step  is  to  take 
from  the  plate  all  of  the  compound  that  is  not  dark- 
ened. 

For  this  purpose  the  plate  is  put  into  another  chemi- 
cal, which  has  the  property  of  dissolving  the  sensitive 
part  of  the  compounds  of  silver,  while  unable  to  dis- 
solve the  other.  When  this  chemical  has  acted,  we 
have  changed  our  sensitive  plate  into  a non-sensitive 
negative.  But  this  negative  is  still  wet,  still  contains 
traces  of  the  chemicals  used,  and  therefore  needs  to  be 
well  cleaned  and  thoroughly  dried.  It  is  cleaned  by 
washing,  since  water  does  not  dissolve  the  darkened 
silver  compound  but  does  wash  out  the  chemicals. 
Then  by  drying  we  get  rid  of  the  water  and  have  left 
a negative  ready  for  printing. 

We  must  now  for  a moment  consider  what  a nega- 
tive is.  In  order  to  understand  this  clearly,  let  us 
suppose  that  we  are  to  make  a negative  by  photo- 
graphing the  ace  of  clubs.  When  this  is  put  up  be- 
fore the  camera  and  its  image  is  carried  by  light  rays 
through  the  lens  and  upon  the  sensitive  plate,  we  shall 
have  an  image  made  up  of  white  rays  coming  from  all 
the  surface  of  the  card  except  the  spot  in  the  middle. 
From  this  there  will  be  no  light  reflected,  so  the  sensi- 
tive plate  will  all  be  affected  by  light  except  where 
rests  the  image  of  the  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  card. 

Now  we  develop  that  plate.  The  developer  will 
turn  dark  all  the  silver  compound  around  the  centre, 
but  will  not  turn  dark  the  compound  where  the  spot 
rested.  We  then  put  the  plate  into  a chemical  that 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS  31 


removes  the  sensitive  silver.  When  we  take  out  the 
plate  we  shall  find  that  the  darkened  silver  remains 
on  all  the  parts  of  the  plate  except  the  central  spot 
where  the  undarkened  silver  has  been  dissolved  out ; 
and  we  shall  then  have  a negative  consisting  of  a plate 
darkened  everywhere  except  in  the  centre  — just  the 
opposite  of  what  we  photographed,  which  was  light 
everywhere  except  in  the  centre.  Now  negative 
means  opposite ; hence  we  see  the  reason  for  the 
name. 


Object  Negative 

Diagram  VIII 

But  no  one  in  photographing  a lady  in  a black  dress 
would  consider  his  work  finished  when  he  had  pro- 
duced a negative  showing  a black-faced  creature  in  a 
white  dress ; so  the  next  step  is  to  make  from  the 
negative  a photograph  or  a “light-drawn  picture.” 

For  this  purpose  we  have  paper  so  prepared  with  a 
silver  compound  that  is  sensitive  to  light  and  so  will 
turn  dark  Avhere  the  light  strikes  it.  Consequently, 
if  we  put  a bit  of  this  paper  below  our  negative  of 
the  ace  of  clubs,  after  it  has  been  left  in  the  light  for 
a while  we  shall  find  that  the  darkened  silver  on  the 
negative  has  kept  the  light  from  darkening  the  paper 
below  it,  while  the  place  where  the  silver  compound 


* 

Print 


32  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


has  been  removed,  in  the  centre  of  the  negative,  lets 
the  light  rays  through  and  blackens  the  paper.  So  by 
printing  we  reverse  the  negative,  and  get  back  to  the 
correct  image  that  was  in  the  camera. 

The  steps  have  been  from  the  real  object  to  an 
image  like  it ; then  to  a negative  where  light  and 
shade  are  reversed ; and  then  back  again  to  a print 
like  the  image  of  the  real  object. 

Through  all  these  processes  there  runs  one  very 
simple  principle,  namely,  that  we  wish  the  light  rays 
to  act,  to  act  in  the  right  amount  and  direction,  and 
without  any  interference.  Consequently  there  is  in 
the  whole  practice  of  photography  nothing  more  im- 
portant than  neatness  and  cleanliness.  All  the  prin- 
ciples that  have  been  explained  in  this  chapter  apply 
to  the  use  of  any  kind  of  plates,  any  camera  and 
lens,  and  to  all  the  different  methods  of  developing 
and  printing. 

No  matter  how  complicated  directions  for  carrying 
out  every  process  may  seem  to  be,  they  will  be  readily 
understood  if  the  principles  here  set  forth,  almost  in 
primer  language,  are  borne  in  mind.  In  truth,  you  . 
will  find  that  the  thick  books  on  photography  are 
really  no  more  than  directions  reasoned  out  from  these 
few  main  principles,  and  put  down  as  reminders  to 
those  who  might  forget  them.  When  we  shall  come 
to  give  you  practical  advice  about  what  sort  of  things 
are  best  for  you  to  use  in  photography,  they  will  be 
the  things  that  will  help  you  most  to  carry  out  these 
simple  directions. 

It  is  a great  mistake  to  think  that  the  best  camera 
is  the  one  which  looks  most  complicated,  or  that  the 
best  developers  are  those  with  the  longest  names  or 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PROCESS  33 


the  most  complicated  formulae.  Neither  should  you 
make  up  your  mind  that  because  wise  men  have 
given  years  to  the  study  of  photography,  the  making 
of  inventions,  and  the  bringing  out  of  new  chemicals, 
that  the  subject  is  one  which  these  simple  principles 
will  not  enable  you  to  understand. 

For  example,  years  of  study  have  gone  to  the  mak- 
ing of  lenses  that  will  produce  the  best  pictures  under 
all  sorts  of  conditions,  but  the  whole  result  has  simply 
been  to  make  us  able  to  throw  upon  the  plate  a clear 
image  and  one  containing  the  right  rays  to  act  chemic- 
ally upon  it.  Even  if  eight  pieces  of  glass,  each 
made  of  different  materials,  and  all  ground  to  different 
shapes,  are  put  together  to  form  the  lens,  and  so 
mounted  as  to  be  capable  of  many  changes,  the  whole 
object  is  still  the  same  — to  bring  the  picture-making 
rays  truly  upon  the  sensitive  surface  — and  by  going 
carefully  over  the  reasons  for  their  making  we  shall 
readily  be  able  to  understand  why  one  lens  is  better 
than  another  for  this  purpose. 

Do  not,  therefore,  lose  sight  of  these  first  simple 
principles,  but  form  the  habit  of  reasoning  about  all 
things  that  seem  complicated  until  you  see  for  your- 
self how  they  come  under  these  simple  laws. 

We  have  given  this  general  outline  so  that  we  may 
now  take  up  matters  more  in  detail  and  show  you  how 
and  why  the  different  things  used  in  photography  act 
to  bring  about  the  one  simple  result — a good  negative 
and  good  prints  from  it. 


CHAPTER  lY 
CHOOSING  A CAMERA 


What  the  beginner  needs  — The  question  of  expense  — Advantages  of 
small  camera  — The  3Jx4J  size  — Large  photographs  most  im- 
pressive— The  nse  of  the  ground-glass  — Plates  and  films  — 
Rolls,  cut-films,  and  film-packs  — The  plate  camera  recommended 
for  the  learner  — Using  the  ground-glass  — Box  cameras  and  fold- 
ing cameras  — Meaning  of  “fixed  focus”  — As  to  the  possible 
exposure  — Advantages  of  a shutter  for  various  short  exposures  — 
The  “finder,”  in  various  forms  — Other  camera  adjuncts  — 
Focus,  and  what  it  is  — Experiments  that  explain  focusing. 

When  one  comes  to  consider  what  sort  of  a camera 
to  choose,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  beginner 
is  entering  a road  which  very  soon  will  divide  into  a 
great  many  branches,  and  these  will  again  divide  un- 
til the  map  of  Photography  Land  will  be  seen  to  in- 
clude a great  many  different  destinations.  The  pur- 
pose of  considering  this  is  that  we  may  make  the 
right  choice  in  the  beginning  and  may  select  a camera 
that  will  teach  us  most  about  the  art  we  are  trying  to 
practice. 

For  this  reason,  it  would  not  be  good  to  buy  the 
cheapest  camera  one  could  find,  although  there  is  no 
doubt  that  even  for  as  low  a price  as  one  dollar  a 
camera  can  be  bought  that  will  do  excellent  work. 
What  should  be  selected  by  the  beginner  who  wishes 
to  learn  is  a camera  that  can  be  so  changed  as  to  do 
different  kinds  of  work,  so  that  he  can  make  experi- 
ments and  find  out  just  what  the  camera  does  under 
different  conditions. 

In  the  older  books  of  photography  there  was  a habit 

34 


CHOOSING  A CAIMERA 


35 


of  advising  beginners  to  choose  first  what  was  called 
a “ view  camera,”  a rather  large  instrument  meant  to 
bo  used  always  on  a tripod  and  without  many  of  the 
devices  needed  in  making  quick  exposures.  The  idea 
was  that  the  beginner  would  become  careless  if  he 
found  his  work  made  easy  for  him  and  was  not  forced 
to  go  about  picture-making  very  slowly  and  carefully. 
But  later  authorities  say,  truly,  that  there  is  no  sense 
in  starting  a beginner  with  an  instrument  different 
from  what  will  be  used  later. 

The  first  consideration  upon  which  the  buying  of  a 
camera  depends  is  how  much  you  can  afford  to  give  for 
one,  and  in  deciding  this  point  it  is  not  enough  to  look 
only  at  the  price  of  the  camera  itself.  It  depends  a 
great  deal,  also,  on  your  own  disposition.  If  one 
chooses  to  be  economical  in  the  use  of  plates  and 
printing  paper,  a great  deal  need  not  be  spent  upon 
them ; but  it  is  very  easy  to  waste  them,  and  the  be- 
ginner especially  is  likely,  while  the  novelty  of  the 
pursuit  tempts  him,  to  take  pictures  recklessly  and  use 
up  a great  deal  of  material. 

For  this  reason,  if  saving  is  or  ought  to  be  an  object 
to  you,  it  will  be  best  to  commence  with  a moderately 
small  camera,  since  the  difference  in  expense  between 
using  a big  one  and  a little  one  is  mainly  affected  by 
the  size  of  the  plate  you  use.  Also,  with  a small 
camera  one  can  afford  to  make  a great  many  experi- 
ments in  order  to  learn  the  art,  and  may  in  making 
them  feel  that  not  too  much  has  been  spent.  After 
you  have  learned  to  use  material  safely,  it  will  be  time 
enough  to  afford  the  larger  camera,  since  you  will 
have  cut  down  the  first  expense  of  your  materials  very 
greatly. 


36  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


It  is  also  wise  in  the  beginning  to  choose  one  of  the 
regular  sizes  of  plates,  so  that  you  may  be  sure  of 
finding  supplies  wherever  you  may  be.  For  this  rea- 
son probably  the  best  size  with  which  to  begin  is  the 
so-called  “ quarter- plate  ” camera,  which  makes  pic- 
tures 31x4ri  inches  in  size.  This  has  the  advantage  of 
being  a size  used  both  in  England  and  in  America,'and 
one  that  is  always  kept  in  stock  by  dealers  not  only 
in  plates  and  films,  but  in  all  sorts  of  printing  papers. 
A plate  of  this  size  is  not  too  small  for  all  sorts  of  uses 
and  not  large  enough  to  be  wasteful  of  material ; for 
remember  that  the  larger  sizes  require  not  only  a 
larger  camera,  but  larger  plates,  more  chemicals, 
larger  trays  used  in  the  dark  room,  larger  printing- 
frames,  larger  papers,  and  so  on. 

You  save  on  all  these  items  by  using  the  smaller 
plate ; at  the  same  time  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  a 
photograph  is  impressive  and  striking  directly  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size,  especially  if  you  take  landscapes  or 
interior  views.  But  even  here  you  may,  whenever  you 
like,  make  from  the  small  negative  larger  prints  at 
not  ver}"  great  cost,  and  yet  this  need  not  be  done 
except  in  the  case  of  a particularly  good  negative. 

The  next  question  is  what  kind  of  camera  in  this 
size  is  best  for  the  beginner.  And  as  to  this,  cer- 
tainly he  should  have  a camera  in  which  he  is  able  to 
see  the  image  upon  a ground-glass,  otherwise  he  will 
do  most  of  his  work  in  the  dark  and  by  guess.  And 
here,  right  at  the  beginning,  we  meet  with  the  great 
question  whether  it  is  better  to  use  plates  or  films ; 
and  this  is  a matter  upon  which  you  will  be  puzzled 
by  receiving  the  most  contrary  advice  — partly  for 
the  reason  that  there  are  a great  many  firms  in  the 


CHOOSING  A CAMERA 


37 


photographic  world  deeply  interested  in  your  choice. 
There  are  a number  who  make  plates,  and  a smaller 
number,  perhaps,  but  an  exceedingly  powerful  body 
of  manufacturers,  interested  in  making  films  and 
therefore  in  selling  cameras  to  make  the  use  of  films 
easy. 

To  go  briefly  into  the  matter,  it  should  be  said 
that  there  are  advantages  on  each  side.  The  users  of 
plates  find  them  cheaper ; certainly  quite  as  good,  if 
not  better,  in  results ; easy  to  handle  in  developing 
and  printing.  But  when  you  begin  to  collect  nega- 
tives on  glass  you  will  find  yourself  in  possession  of 
bulky,  breakable,  and  heavy  glass  plates,  that,  if  kept, 
will  become  more  and  more  of  a nuisance.  You  need 
not  keep  them ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  you  will  hate 
to  destroy  them. 

In  favour  of  the  films  is  their  lightness,  their  dura- 
bility, and  the  fact  that  you  may  keep  hundreds  of 
them  without  trouble.  If,  however,  you  do  your 
own  work  in  developing  and  printing,  you  will  find 
that  the  film  is  more  troublesome  to  handle,  always 
requires  the  use  of  glass  in  the  printing  frame,  is  a 
bother,  if  it  be  thin,  from  its  tendency  to  curl  up 
and  to  become  stiff  and  unmanageable;  for,  in  spite 
of  what  is  advertised,  you  need  not  expect  to  find 
films  that  do  not  curl  somewhat.  All  curl,  more  or 
less,  and  to  be  kept  flat  must  be  kept  under  pres- 
sure. There  are,  however,  a number  of  things  that 
cannot  be  done  with  plates  in  developing  and  so  on, 
that  can  be  done  with  films. 

Of  course  there  is  no  variety  in  the  choice  of  plates 
of  glass,  but  when  you  consider  the  question  of  films 
there  are  three  forms  in  which  they  may  be  bought, 


38  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


and  certain  varieties  of  these.  You  may  buy  films  in 
the  well  known  “ rolls,”  a long,  coated  strip  that 
unrolls  from  one  spool  and  is  rolled  up  on  another, 
while  in  the  camera.  It  can  be  developed  either  in 
the  strip  or  when  cut  up  into  its  separate  exposures. 
Then  there  are  films  cut  to  the  plate-sizes  and  used 
just  as  plates  are.  Thirdly,  there  is  the  “ film-pack,” 
a recent  invention,  where  the  films  are  packed  into  a 
sort  of  envelope  in  cut  pieces  so  that  they  can  be 
drawn  from  the  front  to  back  and  exposed  one  by  one. 
The  cut-films  first  mentioned  are  exposed  just  exactly 
like  plates.  The  roll-film  may  be  cut  apart  and  treated 
like  plates,  or  may  be  developed  in  a strip,  either  by 
hand  or  in  boxes  that  do  away  with  the  use  of  a dark 
room.  A film-pack  allows  separate  exposures  and 
permits  you  to  take  out  and  develop  separately  ex- 
posures before  you  have  finished  the  use  of  the  whole 
pack;  but  works  better  if  not  opened  till  all  are 
exposed. 

The  only  reason  for  considering  this  question  at 
present  is  its  bearing  upon  the  choice  of  your  camera ; 
and,  as  already  stated,  there  are  good  reasons  for 
choosing  a camera  in  which  you  can  use  the  ground- 
glass.  It  is  possible  to  use  films,  and  }’^et  to  focus  on 
the  ground-glass,  but  in  order  to  do  that,  you  will  have 
to  buy  a special  camera  if  you  use  the  roll-film  ; or  if 
you  use  the  film-pack  it  will  have  to  be  with  a special 
device  called  the  “ film-pack  adapter.”  This  device 
has  a cover  allowing  you  to  remove  the  pack  from  your 
camera  while  you  use  the  ground-glass.  With  plates 
or  cut-films  you  use  plate-holders,  which  also  have  a 
cover  allowing  them  to  be  taken  from  the  camera  to 
permit  the  use  of  the  ground-glass.  There  are. 


CHOOSING  A CAMEEA 


39 


besides,  a number  of  “ magazine  cameras  ” using  plates 
or  cut-films,  but  not  all  of  these  permit  use  of  the 
ground-glass. 

The  conclusion  is  that  a camera  using  ordinary 
plates  in  plate-holders,  and  using  also  a film-pack 
adapter,  is  probably  the  best  for  the  beginner.  With 
such  a camera  you  can  use  the  ground-glass  for  every 
exposure,  if  you  like,  may  use  either  plates  or  films, 
and  can  thus  have  all  the  advantages  of  both.  The 
only  thing  that  you  cannot  do  with  such  a camera  is 
to  use  the  roll-film  — unless  you  buy  for  it  a special 
“ roll-holder,”  which  is  quite  expensive,  and  which  is 
very  little  used  at  present. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  advice  is  addressed 
to  the  heghmer,  who  is  not  yet  certain  just  what  sort 
of  photographic  work  he  means  to  do,  and  therefore 
ought  to  prepare  himself  for  all  kinds.  The  photog- 
rapher who  has  special  work  in  view  may  find  another 
kind  of  camera  better  adapted  to  it.  For  example, 
there  are  many  good  reasons  why  he  might  use  a roll- 
film  camera  and  develop  all  his  exposures  by  means  of 
the  boxes  and  tanks  used  in  the  daylight.  We  do  not 
mean  to  condemn  this  form  in  any  way,  but  only  to 
advise  the  beginner  to  choose  as  his  first  camera  one 
that  will  teach  him  frequently  to  use  the  ground-glass 
before  exposing. 

This  “ ground-glass  ” is  a piece  of  glass  fitted  to  the 
back  of  the  camera  so  as  to  occupy  when  in  use  exactly 
the  same  place  that  the  plate  will  occupy  while  being 
exposed.  Consequently  when  the  lens  is  open,  the 
same  image  that  is  to  be  thrown  on  the  plate  is  thrown 
upon  the  ground-glass  and  may  be  examined  in  order 
to  see  what  you  are  going  to  take.  The  rough,  or 


40  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


ground  side  of  the  glass  is  toward  the  lens  in  the  place 
where  the  sensitive  film  is  to  be.  Like  everything 
else  about  the  camera,  it  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean,  since  otherwise  you  cannot  judge  correctly  all 
parts  of  the  image  received  on  it. 

The  next  question  in  regard  to  the  camera  is  whether 
you  shall  choose  what  is  known  as  a “ box  camera  ” 
or  a “ folding  camera.”  These  two  types  are  well 
known,  and  differ  mainly  in  the  fact  that  one  has  its 
working  parts  concealed  by  the  outward  box,  while 
the  other  opens  to  admit  of  the  lens  and  its  attach- 
ments being  drawn  out  when  focusing.  Here  again 
both  forms  have  advantages,  but  perhaps  the  deciding 
points  will  be  found  in  the  question  of  your  own 
character  and  the  use  you  mean  to  make  of  the 
camera.  If  you  are  of  a bashful  temperament,  you 
will  often  find  that  the  folding  camera  will  embarrass 
you,  since  before  making  an  exposure  it  has  to  be 
opened  and  made  ready  for  the  exposure,  which  very 
much  changes  its  appearance  and  shows  all  lookers-on 
that  you  are  about  to  take  a picture ; whereas  the  box 
camera  looks  the  same  in  each  case  and  attracts  much 
less  attention.  Besides  the  box  camera  is  all  ready, 
or  may  be  carried  all  ready  for  “ snap-shots.” 

The  name,  “ fixed  focus,”  is  sometimes  given  to 
cameras,  but  it  really  means  nothing  more  than  that 
the  lens  is  fastened  in  one  place,  so  that  the  camera 
will  photograpli  ever3’thing  beyond  a certain  distance. 
There  is  no  advantage  in  this  over  a camera  with 
changeable  focus,  except  that  j-^ou  have  in  using  it  no 
need  to  think  about  distance.  The  fixed-focus  camera 
cannot  do  a great  many  things  that  are  done  by  the 
others,  while  any  camera  may  be  made  into  a fixed- 


CHOOSING  A CAMERA 


41 


focus  camera  by  simply  fastening  the  lens  at  a certain 
place.  Besides,  the  modern  folding  cameras  often  have 
a device  by  which  the  lens  can  be  instantly  brought  to 
the  most  generally  useful  focus  — what  would  belts 
fixed  focus. 

"We  have  advised  the  use  of  the  ground-glass  because 
it  enables  one  to  know  what  image  is  coming  through 
the  lens  ; and  in  the  same  way  we  advise  that  a camera 
be  selected  that  permits  of  giving  a long  or  short  time 
of  exposure,  and  a time  that  you  can  measure. 
Usually  for  the  amateur  there  is  supplied  in  the 
cheaper  cameras  only  two  kinds  of  exposures,  so-called 
“ instantaneous  ” and  “ time.”  The  instantaneous  is 
made  by  pressing  a button,  causing  the  lens  to  open 
for  a very  short  time,  usually  about  one-twenty-fifth 
or  one-fiftieth  of  a second.  Time  exposure  may  be,  of 
course,  made  of  any  length  beyond  the  time  necessary 
to  open  and  to  close  the  shutter,  since  it  will  stay  open 
until  you  close  it. 

It  is  true  that  with  these  two  kinds  of  exposure  you 
can  give  any  time  you  like  beyond  about  one-half  a 
second  (except  by  using  “ stops,”  as  will  appear  later), 
but  short  of  that,  you  can  usually  give  only  an  ex- 
posure of  one  fixed  length  depending  upon  the  quick- 
ness of  action  of  the  instantaneous  shutter.  But  this 
is  not  enough.  Most  amateurs  will  wish  to  use  the 
quick  plates,  and  with  these  it  is  most  important  to  be 
able  to  give  various  fractions  of  a second  in  exposing. 
Until  we  discuss  this  question  fully,  we  can  only  say 
that  on  our  general  principle  of  knowing  exactly  what 
you  are  doing,  you  should  be  able  to  give  more  than 
one  kind  of  very  short  exposure,  and  therefore  we  ad- 
•vise  strongly  that  you  afford  for  your  camera  a price 


42  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


large  enough  to  supply  a shutter  arranged  for  more 
than  one  short  exposure. 

Until  we  can  look  more  closely  into  the  question  of 
selecting  the  lens,  it  will  be  enough  to  say  that  in 
buying  a camera  with  such  a shutter  as  we  have  just 
spoken  of,  you  will  obtain  a lens  that  will  work  rightly 
in  connection  with  the  shutter  — which  is  all  you 
need  think  of  until  you  begin  to  do  really  expert  work. 
It  is  worth  knowing  that  the  very  expensive  lenses 
are  of  little  extra  value  to  the  amateur  ; that  sufficient 
clearness  and  practical  accuracy  can  be  obtained  with 
moderate-priced  lenses;  and  that  in  many  kinds  of 
pictures,  such  as  portraits  and  landscapes,  artistic 
effect  may  even  be  spoiled  by  a too  precise  clearness 
that  shows  every  wrinkle,  or  every  stick  and  stone. 
The  high-priced  lenses,  are  generally  “quicker,”  re- 
quiring less  exposure,  so  that  with  some  of  them  you 
can  take  good  snap-shots  on  dark  days ; but  probably 
you  will  not  need  this  rapidity  very  often. 

One  adjunct  of  which  we  have  merely  spoken  by 
name  is  the  “ finder.”  This  is  a little  camera,  or  box, 
which  has  but  one  purpose  — to  tell  you,  roughly^ 
■w’hat  is  included  in  the  image  upon  the  ground-glass 
or  upon’ the  plate.  The  usual  sort  has  in  it  a small 
lens,  a piece  of  looking-glass,  and  a bit  of  ground-glass. 
The  lens  is  so  aimed  as  to  give  as  near  as  possible  the 
same  image  on  a small  scale  that  is  given  on  a large 
scale  by  the  lens  of  the  camera.  The  looking-glass 
causes  this  image  to  appear  right-side  up,  whereas  the 
image  on  the  ground-glass  inside  the  camera  is  always 
upside  down.  But  the  finder  is  a tiny  fixed-focus 
camera,  and  cannot  tell  you  anything  except  the  di- 
rection in  which  you  have  pointed  your  camera  and 


CnOOSIXG  A CAMERA 


43 


give  you  an  idea  of  what  you  are  taking.  The  image 
shown  by  the  finder  is  always  clear  within  certain 
limits  of  distance,  and  therefore  does  not  tell  you 
whether  you  have  got  your  image  on  the  ground-glass 
inside  the  camera  (that  is,  on  the  plate),  in  the  rujht 
focus.  It  is  also  reversed.,  because  of  the  mirror  used 
in  it. 

Besides  this  form  of  finder,  there  are  two  others ; 
one  uses  a lens  in  the  top  instead  of  the  ground-glass, 
giving  a slightly  clearer  and  brighter  image.  The 
other  is  not  a camera  at  all,  being  simply  a sort  of 
frame,  either  with  or  without  glass,  that  shows  you 
how  much  of  the  scene  you  are  taking  is  in  the  image 
cast  by  your  lens.  The  eye  has  to  be  at  a fixed  dis- 
tance from  this  last  sort,  and  it  acts  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  sights  of  a gun. 


Diagram  IX— Three  Pictures  of  Finders 


There  are  other  adjuncts  of  the  camera,  but  they 
are  all  devoted  to  a few  purposes,  which  may  be  briefly 
told  as  follows:  Means  for  changing  the  distance  be- 

tween lens  and  plate.  Means  for  moving  the  lens  up 
and  down  or  right  and  left,  so  as  to  change  the  image 
thrown  upon  the  plate.  Means  for  turning  the  plate 
around  so  as  to  bring  the  image  in  a different  position 
on  the  plate.  Means  for  holding  camera  steady,  and 
knowing  when  it  is  level, 


44  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


If  we  add  to  these  the  devices  for  making  a longer 
or  a shorter  exposure,  and  for  using  more  or  less  of 
the  lens  — that  is,  the  shutter  mechanism  and  the  dia- 
phragm mechanism  — we  shall  have  covered  the  things 
used  in  making  exposures. 

As  to  altering  the  distance  between  lens  and  plate, 
this  covers  the  whole  subject  of  focus.  The  word 
focus  means  “ fireplace,”  and  came  to  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  lens  when  the  lens  was  used  as  a 
burning-glass.  The  plate  is  in  focus  when  it  is  at  the 
j)lace  where  the  rays  coining  through  the  lens  from 
any  given  point  outside  the  camera  come  to  a point 
again  inside  of  it.  This  place,  in  Diagram  IV,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  line  drawn  through  a,  b and  c.  In  the 
case  of  the  burning-glass,  the  object  whose  image  is 
cast  by  the  glass  is  the  sun.  Defore  we  discuss  the 
theory  of  focusing,  you  will  see  the  advantage  of  hav- 
ing a camera  permitting  the  use  of  the  ground-glass 
if  you  will  make  certain  experiments  in  finding  out 
the  effect  of  changing  the  distance  between  your  lens 
and  the  ground-glass. 

Perhaps  the  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  light  a lamp 
in  a darkened  room,  and  open  your  lens  in  order  that 
the  lamp  may  cast  its  image  on  the  ground-glass. 
Then,  as  you  slowly  go  nearer  or  move  away,  you 
will  find  that  this  image  becomes  less  blurred,  and 
finally  becomes  entirely  clear.  Now,  leaving  the 
camera  at  that  point,  }mu  may  move  the  lamp  itself, 
and  on  examining  the  image  again  you  will  find  that 
it  is  again  blurred  ; and  in  order  to  get  a clear  image 
you  will  have  to  move  the  camera  again.  If  you  have 
moved  the  lamp  nearer  to  the  camera, in  order  to  restore 
the  clearness  of  the  image  }’ou  will  have  to  move  the 


CHOOSING  A CAMERA 


45 


camera  further  away.  If  you  have  increased  the  dis- 
tance between  the  camera  and  the  lamp,  you  will  have 
to  bring  the  camera  nearer  to  the  lamp  again.  You 
will  also  notice  that  the  size  of  the  image  changes  ac- 
cording to  the  distance  of  the  lamp  from  the  lens. 

All  these  experiments  should  be  made  without 
changing  the  distance  between  the  lens  and  the  ground- 
glass.  Next,  having  put  the  camera  at  such  a distance 
as  to  give  a clear  image,  move  the  lens  further  from 
the  ground-glass,  and  you  will  find  the  image  has 
blurred.  In  order  to  make,  the  image  clear  again  by 
moving  the  lamp,  you  must  bring  the  lamp  nearer. 
If  you  have  brought  your  lens  nearer  to  the  ground- 
glass,  you  will  have  to  put  the  lamp  further  off  to  get 
the  clear  image. 


These  experiments  are  well  worth  making,  and  they 
will  teach  you  the  following  rules : First,  speaking 

generally,  the  greater  the  distance  between  lens  and 
object,  the  nearer  must  the  lens  be  to  the  ground-glass 
to  give  a clear  image  ; in  Diagram  X,  above,  you  will 
see  this  shown  : when  the  object  is  at  M,  the  ground- 
glass  must  be  at  m ; when  the  object  is  at  O,  the 
ground-glass  must  be  moved  up  to  o.  Second,  there 
is  a distance  from  the  lens  at  which  and  beyond  which 


46  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


all  objects  give  a clear  image ; in  the  diagram  this 
image  is  at  F,  and  the  object  may  be  100  feet  or 
more  away.  Anything  nearer  than  this  will  only  give 
a clear  image  when  the  ground-glass  is  moved  more  or 
less  away  from  the  lens.  Third,  since  your  lens  and 
ground-glass  cannot  be  separated  in  the  camera  beyond 
a certain  point  (depending  on  the  length  of  the  box 
or  bellows),  you  cannot  make  clear  images  of  things 
nearer  than  a certain  distance  from  any  particular 
camera.  Fourth,  as  you  already  know,  but  may  well 
notice  on  the  diagram  for  a clearer  understanding, 
the  farther  away  the  object,  the  smaller  the  image  of 
it  on  the  ground-glass. 

To  sum  up  these  principles,  we  will  say  that  with 
j'our  lens  there  is  a point  beyond  which  all  things  are 
in  focus  when  the  lens  is  adjusted  at  a given  point. 
Also,  there  is  a limit  to  the  nearness  at  which  you  can 
get  clear  images.  This  limit  depends  upon  how  far 
apart  you  can  separate  your  lens  and  ground-glass. 

This  simple  experiment  should  make  clear  to  you 
what  is  meant  by  the  lens’s  “ universal  focus”;  the 
use  of  the  long  bellows  in  taking  objects  near  to  the 
lens;  the  need  for  moving  the  lens  further  from  or 
nearer  to  the  ground-glass  to  make  a clear  image ; and 
also  the  fact  that  the  size  of  the  image  on  your  ground- 
glass  may  be  varied  at  will  from  a mere  point  to  the 
image  given  when  your  lens  is  as  far  as  possible  from 
your  ground-glass. 


CEAPTER  Y 

FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 

Camera  drill — The  lens  and  shutter  mechanism  and  diaphragms  — 
The  three  kinds  of  exposures  — The  effect  of  the  diaphragm  — 
What  is  meaut  by  “depth  of  focus”  — Length  of  exposure  af- 
fected by  sizes  of  opening  in  diaphragm  — The  “speed  ” of  a lens 
depends  on  the  opening  — The  first  picture-taking  — Loading 
plate-holders — Meaning  of  “dark  room”  — Testing  its  safety  — 
Ventilating  — Precautions  in  loading — “Daylight  loading”  — 
Know  what  you  are  doing,  and  why  — Device  of  a clever  photog- 
rapher — Quick  and  slow  plates  — How  light  delays  its  own  action 
— Advantages  of  slower  plates  — A common  defect  in  plate- 
holders. 

Supposing  that  you  have  such  a camera  as  is 
recommended,  you  ought  to  make  yourself  very  well 
acquainted  with  it  before  trying  to  use  it  for  picture- 
taking. For  this  purpose  it  would  be  well  to  set  aside 
an  afternoon  and  to  devote  it  to  what  is  called  by 
Bayley,  the  English  photographer,  “camera  drill.” 
By  this  he  means  just  such  practice  as  is  gone  through 
by  the  young  recruit  with  his  rifle  before  he  is  allowed 
to  load  it.  In  the  case  of  the  recruit,  this  is  done  so 
that  he  may  not  do  damage  or  waste  ammunition 
when  he  actually  fires  the  gun  ; and  in  your  case,  it  is 
so  that  you  may  not  spoil  plates  when,  with  loaded 
camera,  you  try  to  take  pictures.  You  should  begin 
your  camera  drill  by  sitting  down  before  a table  that 
will  support  the  camera  and  leave  your  hands  free  to 
try  the  working  of  the  different  parts.  With  the 
camera  before  you,  go  all  over  it,  and  be  sure  that 
you  understand  the  purpose  of  every  attachment. 

47 


48  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


Most  important  portion  of  all,  and  therefore  proba- 
bly a good  thing  to  begin  on,  is  the  lens-and-sh utter 
mechanism,  including  the  diaphragms,  or  stops.  An 
excellent  way  to  understand  this  is  to  open  the  camera 
so  that  you  can  see  the  ground-glass,  and  then  point 
your  lens  toward  a window  of  the  room  so  that  the 
window  will  be  reflected  as  a bright  spot  upon  the 
glass.  By  looking  at  this  bright  spot  you  will  see  for 
yourself  just  what  is  the  effect  of  the  different  ways  of 
opening  and  closing  the  shutter. 

For  example,  you  will  probably  find  on  your  shutter 
front,  the  letters  T,  B,  I.  If,  with  shutter  closed,  you 
turn  the  little  index  pointer  to  the  letter  T (meaning 
“ time  ”),  and  then  touch  the  exposing  lever,  or  squeeze 
the  bulb  (if  there  is  a rubber  bulb),  you  will  see  that 
the  lens  flies  open,  and  that  the  image  of  the  window 
appears  on  the  ground-glass,  A second  pressure  closes 
the  shutter,  and  the  image  disappears. 

Next,  turning  the  index  to  “ B,”  meaning  “ bulb,” 
touch  the  lever  again,  and  you  will  find  that  this  will 
open  the  shutter,  but  that  it  will  stay  open  until  you 
remove  the  pressure  of  the  finger,  or  release  the  bulb. 
There  remains  the  “instantaneous”  mark,  indicated 
by  “ I.”  Turning  the  index  to  I,  the  exposing  lever 
causes  the  shutter  both  to  open  and  close  again,  more 
or  less  quickly. 

These  are  the  three  kinds  of  exposure  possible  with 
the  usual  shutter.  The  third,  or  instantaneous,  is 
varied  in  time.  You  will  find  a scale  on  the  shutter 
marked  with  figures  showing  fractions  of  a second 
during  which  your  shutter  will  remain  open  for  in- 
stantaneous exposures.  As  the  place  of  this  device 
differs  in  different  shutters,  you  will  have  to  find  it 


Courtesy  of  Eastman  Kodak  Co. 

Showing  revolving  back  turned  half-way 
to  vertical  jxisition 


Courtesy  of  liastman  KoJak  Co. 

Showing  long  bellows,  fully  extended 

Camera  Accessories 


i. 


Copyright.  1906.  by  ft. Phelan 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


49 


for  yourself,  or  inquire  which  it  is.  Having  found  it, 
set  the  shutter  successively  for  the  different  speeds, 
and  by  noticing  the  image  on  your  ground-glass  you 
will  get  an  idea  of  how  long  each  is.  You  may  not 
be  able  to  distinguish  them  very  clearly,  but  until  you 
come  to  do  expert  work  the  fractional  differences  will 
not  be  all-important.  You  will  certainly  know  when 
you  want  the  quickest  possible  exposure,  or  a slower 
one,  and  can  distinguish  between  ^ or  i of  a second 
and  z\s  or  The  usual  figures  are  1,  2,  5,  25, 50, 100. 
The  first  means  one  second,  the  next  then  comes 
i,  and  so  on  — the  bigger  the  number  the  smaller 
the  fraction  of  a second. 

Also  attached  to  your  shutter-mechanism  you  will 
find  some  means  for  changing  the  lens-opening  in  size 
so  as  to  let  more  or  less  light  through  your  lens  ; that 
is,  a larger  or  smaller  number  of  rays  or  images.  This 
device  usually  takes  one  of  two  forms.  The  simplest 
form  is  a slide  with  a round  hole  in  it,  to  be  placed  in 
front  of,  between,  or  back  of,  the  lenses,  that  will  allow 
only  a part  of  the  central  rays  to  pass.  The  second 
form  is  what  is  known  as  the  “ iris  diaphragm,”  and 
differs  only  in  that  it  opens  and  closes  circularly,  like 
the  iris  of  the  human  eye. 

In  the  first  kind  you  are  supplied  with  three  or  four 
openings  (or  “ stops  ”),  each  one  usually  half  the  di- 
ameter of  the  next  larger.  The  iris  diaphragm,  how- 
ever, can  be  made  any  size  you  choose  from  largest  to 
smallest ; and  the  lever  that  moves  it  has  an  index 
scale  attached  showing  the  ordinary  sizes. 

By  changing  the  amount  of  light  that  passes  through 
the  lens  you  simply  diminish  the  number  of  images 
that  are  brought  to  a single  focus  by  the  lens  and  thus 


50  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


bring  about  two  results.  Since  your  diaphragm  cuts 
off  light  from  the  edges  of  the  lens  rather  than  its 
centre,  and  since  the  rays  that  come  through  the  edges 
are  the  hardest  to  bring  to  a focus,  at  the  same  time 
that  you  diminish  the  number  of  images  brought  to  a 
focus  and  so  lessen  the  light-rays,  you  also  use  the 
very  clearest  ones  and  get  rid  of  those  hardest  to  bring 
to  a true  focus. 

Consequently,  the  things  for  you  to  remember  in 
using  the  diaphragms  are  these:  first,  you  lessen  the 
amount  of  light  admitted  ; second,  you  thereby  make 
a longer  exposure  necessary ; third,  you  get  a clearer 
image  with  less  blurring ; fourth,  you  are  working 
with  what  is  really  a smaller  lens. 

Now  as  to  this  fourth,  it  has  not  yet  been  explained 
what  the  effect  of  working  with  a smaller  lens  is,  and 
we  prefer  to  take  up  that  subject  when  we  talk  of 
lenses  more  in  detail ; but  here  we  will  simply  say  that 
experiment  will  show  you  that  a small  diaphragm  al- 
lows more  things  to  be  in  focus  at  the  same  time  — 
that  is,  more  things  at  different  distances. 

For  example,  if  you  are  taking  a portrait  of  a friend 
standing  in  front  of  a grove  of  trees,  when  you  use 
the  largest  diaphragm  and  so  arrange  your  lens  and 
ground-glass  as  to  get  a sharp  image  of  the  person  you 
are  photographing,  by  looking  at  the  edges  of  the 
whole  image  on  the  ground-glass,  you  will  see  that  the 
background  is  blurred,  or  “out  of  focus.”  Now,  if 
you  leave  the  lens  and  ground-glass  where  they  are, 
and  simply  change  your  diaphragm  so  as  to  give  a 
smaller  opening,  you  will  find  that  the  smaller  the 
opening  is  made  the  more  you  bring  both  distant  and 
nearer  objects  into  focus  at  the  same  time  that  the 


FIEST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


61 


person  remains  in  focus.  But  the  general  lighting  of 
your  ground-glass  is  lessened,  and  longer  exposure 
needed. 

So  remember  that  by  using  the  large  diaphragm  you 
get  what  is  known  as  less  “ depth  of  focus.”  That  is, 
your  main  object  will  be  in  focus,  but  things  only  a 
little  nearer  or  further  away  will  be  blurred.  By 
using  a smaller  opening  you  will  find  greater  “ depth 
of  focus,”  or  more  things  in  focus,  even  though  they 
are  nearer  or  farther  from  your  camera  than  the  ob- 
ject on  which  you  have  focused  sharply.  (You  must 
be  careful  not  to  confuse  “ depth  of  focus  ” with 
“focal  length,”  which  we  explain  later,  for  that'is 
quite  a different  thing.) 

It  is  well  worth  while  to  experiment  by  focusing 
upon  some  brightly  lighted  scene,  and  then  changing 
your  diaphragm  in  order  that  you  may  become  well 
acquainted  with  the  effect  in  lessening  the  light,  sharp- 
ening it,  and  changing  the  depth  of  focus. 

There  is  a simple  rule,  easily  explained,  by  which 
you  can  understand  just  how  much  the  change  of  open- 
ing by  using  diaphragms,  or  stops,  affects  the  length 
of  exposure. 

If  you  remember  your  school-books,  you  will  under- 
stand that  the  amount  of  light  admitted  through  a 
circular  opening  as  compared  with  the  light  through 
another  circular  opening  depends  upon  comparison  of 
the  squares  of  the  diameters.  Simply  explained,  this 
is  only  saying  that  the  relation  (or  size  compared  to  one 
another)  of  two  circular  openings  is  the  same  as  the  re- 
lation of  two  square  openings.  If  we  have  a square 
two  inches  wide,  or  2x2,  it  will  admit  ybwr  square 
inches  of  light.  If  we  have  a square  4 x i,  it  will  ad- 


62  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


rait  sixteen  square  inches  of  light ; because  doubling 
the  sides  doubles  also  the  height.  But  the  squares  and 
the  circles  are  related  in  the  same  way,  so  that  if  we 
double  the  diameter  of  a circle  we  shall  admit  through 
it  four  times  as  much  light. 

Consequently  the  rule  follows  that  a round  stop,  or 
diaphragm,  which  cuts  down  the  width  or  diameter  of 
the  opening  by  half,  requires  an  exposure ybwr  times 
as  long. 


It  may  be  well  to 
say  here  that  all  clean 
and  clear  lenses  ad- 
mit practically  the 
same  Mnd  of  light  to 
the  plate ; if  there  is 
any  difference  it  is 
too  slight  to  count. 
Therefore  the  speed 
of  a lens  depends 
entirely  upon  how  large  an  opening  it  admits  of.  A 
“ rapid  lens  ” is  only  one  so  perfectly  made  and  shaped 
that  it  brings  to  a good  focus  nearly  ever}'  ray  (that 
is,  photographic  ray),  that  goes  through  it.  A poor 
lens’s  action  is  likely  to  be  worse  and  worse  as  you  go 
from  the  centre  toward  the  edges ; consequently  a 
poor  lens  to  give  a clear  image  must  be  used  with  a 
stop  that  shuts  off  the  outer  rays. 

A good  lens,  therefore,  can  be  used  with  a wide 
opening  exposing  nearly  all  its  surface ; and  so  lenses 
are  described  as  regards  their  working  by  telling  the 
largest  size  of  the  opening  at  which  the}'  will  give 
clear  images. 

Since  the  largest  stop  or  diaphragm  provided  for 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


53 


you  to  use  with  a given  lens  is  the  largest  aperture  at 
which  your  lens  will  work  satisfactorily  over  the 
whole  plate,  it  is  an  indication  of  how  good  a lens  you 
have.  The  larger  the  opening  in  proportion  to  the 
diameter  of  the  lens,  the  better  and  “quicker  ” is  the 
lens,  simply  because  it  uses  more  light-rays. 

Although  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  some  other 
attachments  that  have  to  do  with  making  exposures, 
we  will  leave  these  until  we  have  to  consider  the 
special  circumstances  where  those  attachments  are 
useful ; and  we  will  assume  that  you  have  made  your- 
self familiar  with  the  way  of  making  an  exposure,  or, 
in  other  words,  have  completed  your  “ camera  drill  ” 
so  that  you  are  ready  to  load  the  camera  and  begin 
picture-taking,  with  some  knowledge  of  what  you  are 
doing. 

Let  us  begin  by  loading  your  plate-holders  with 
glass  plates.  This  must,  of  course,  be  done  in  the 
“ dark  room,”  and  this  will  be  a good  place  to  explain 
what  is  meant  by  a dark  room. 

From  the  general  principles  already  set  down  you 
will  understand  that  the  purpose  is  to  keep  the  new 
plates  from  any  light  that  will  act  upon  them.  How 
sensitive  plates  are  you  may  understand  by  thinking 
how  faint  a light  is  sufficient  to  impress  itself  on  the 
plate  during  exposure  in  the  camera.  Examine  a few 
photographs  and  you  will  see  that  they  cover  a wide 
range  of  lighting  — possibly  from  the  bright  light  of  a 
white  cloud  to  the  shadowed  side  of  a dark  tree-trunk  ; 
and  yet  the  plate  is  sensitive  enough  to  record  even 
the  faint  lightings  in  places  that  are  almost  quite  dark. 
In  other  words,  the  very  faintest  light  leaves  some 
trace.  So,  to  keep  our  new  plates  from  spoiling,  they 


64  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


must  not  receive  the  slightent  touch  of  light  that  can 
act  on  them.  The  dark  room,  therefore,  is  a room 
from  which  all  such  light  is  kept  out,  and  only  the 
faint  red  and  yellow  rays  (the  non-photographic  rays), 
are  admitted  to  help  us  see  what  we  are  doing.  By 
these  we  can  see,  even  if  they  are  too  faint  to  affect 
the  plate. 

The  beginner  is  likely  to  fall  into  the  error  of  think- 
ing a small  window  in  his  lamp,  or  in  his  dark  room, 
is  safer  than  a large  one.  This  is  not  true.  The  light 
from  the  larger  opening  is  no  more  dangerous  to  the 
plates  than  that  from  a tiny  window.  You  may  be 
led  into  this  idea  because  we  have  just  told  you  that 
increasing  the  size  of  the  lens  opening  lets  in  a greater 
number  of  light  rays.  But  the  plain-glass  window, 
you  must  remember,  does  not,  like  the  lens,  gather 
light  rays  into  one  spot;  so  a large  glass  does  not 
increase  the  strength  of  the  light,  but  merely  ad- 
mits light  over  a greater  space.  As  it  fills  the 
room  fuller  of  light,  it  does  leave  fewer  dark  places 
in  which  one  may  lay  the  plate  when  not  examin- 
ing it ; but  it  is  easy  to  screen  the  light  from  such 
parts  as  you  wish  to  be  in  shadow.  A large  lamp 
with  the  flame  turned  low  is  safer  than  a small  one 
with  a big  flame,  as  well  as  being  much  easier  to 
work  by. 

During  the  daylight  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find 
a place  dark  enough  for  handling  new  plates  except 
when  a room  has  been  built  for  the  purpose.  But  at 
night  the  problem  is  very  much  simpler.  Unless  there 
is  bright  moonlight,  you  can  handle  plates  or  develop 
safely  in  any  room  from  which  artificial  light  is  ab- 
sent; but  it  is  wise  to  sit  for  a few  moments  in  the 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


65 


room,  until  your  eyes  become  accustomed  to  the  dark- 
ness, and  then  to  examine  whether  there  are  any 
lights  tliat  shine  in  from  outside,  any  reflections  that 
bring  in  outer  light,  and  so  on.  If  there  is  no  such 
outside  light  admitted,  a room  with  shades  drawn  will 
be  safe  for  your  plates,  especially  if  you  do  not  leave 
them  long  exposed.  If  you  wish  to  be  very  careful, 
you  can  test  a room  by  leaving  a plate  face  upward 
on  a table  in  the  dark,  half  of  it  being  covered  with 
black  or  red  paper,  the  other  half  exposed  to  the  ordi- 
nary light  of  the  dark  room.  After  developing  such 
a plate,  if  you  find  the  exposed  side  comes  out  darker 
than  the  other  it  is  a proof  that  the  room  is  not 
dark  enough,  or  your  developing  light  is  not  rightly 
guarded. 

But,  having  a room  that  is  safe,  you  will  light  your 
dark-room  lantern,  which  should  consist  of  a lamp  that 
gives  light  only  through  a piece  of  ruby  glass,  or,  still 
better,  through  two  panes  of  glass,  one  yellow  and  one 
ruby.  The  best  lamps  are  so  made.  Here,  again,  you 
can  profitably  spend  a little  time  in  examining  your 
lamp  and  seeing  that  there  are  no  chinks  from  which 
light  leaks  to  make  spots  of  light  on  your  table  or  on 
the  ceiling.  If  such  spots  are  found,  the  openings 
must  be  covered  by  gluing  on  bits  of  red  paper  or 
clotli. 

There  is,  however,  no  need  to  shut  air  out  of  your 
dark  room.  An  oil  lamp,  especially  if  turned  low,  will 
tend  to  make  the  air  close,  and  you  will  find  it  wise  to 
have  your  room  well  ventilated.  It  is  well,  also,  to 
have  the  room  cool,  especially  when  you  come  to 
developing. 

Having  room  and  lamp  safely  prepared,  open  your 


66  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


box  of  plates  by  cutting  around  the  lower  edge,  injur- 
ing the  box  no  more  than  is  necessary,  since  it  will 
make  an  excellent  receptacle  for  exposed  plates  or  for 
unexposed  plates  you  may  not  use  right  away,  and 
afterward  for  finished  negatives.  But  before  un- 
covering the  plates  it  is  wise  to  do  all  that  you  can 
to  make  ready  for  the  loading.  Taking  the  covers 
from  the  plate-holders,  place  the  covers  and  plate- 
holders  at  your  right  hand,  put  the  box  of  plates 
at  your  left  hand,  and  be  sure  you  have  in  front 
of  the  lamp  a clean  place  on  which  to  work.  It  is 
also  wise  to  have  a soft  brush,  a clean  cloth,  or  a 
little  tuft  of  cotton,  and  with  this  to  dust  out  the 
plate-holders  and  their  covers  before  putting  out 
all  lights  except  your  dark-room  lamp.  In  other 
words,  make  all  the  preparations  you  can  in  full 
light. 

Then,  with  your  dark-room  lamp  turned  somewhat 
down,  but  leaving  yourself  enough  light  to  see  what 
you  are  doing,  open  the  box  of  plates  (which  wdll 
be  found  to  consist  of  one  box  within  another),  put 
the  first  cover  out  of  your  way,  then  remove  the 
second,  and  you  will  find  the  plates  wrapped  in 
black  paper.  Get  one  plate-holder  ready  so  that  you 
know  where  it  is  and  where  its  covers  are.  Now 
raise  the  black  paper  and  you  will  come  upon  the 
plates.  These  are  always  packed  in  couples,  face  to 
face  ; so,  on  raising  the  paper,  what  is  opposite  you  is 
the  hack  of  the  first  plate.  It  is  slightly  more  shiny 
than  the  other  side,  and  reflects  the  lantern  light 
more  clearly. 

It  is  assumed  that  you  will  already  have  discovered 
the  w’orkings  of  your  plate-holder,  which  usually  has  a 


FIEST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


67 


spring  to  press  on  one  edge  of  the  glass,  and  hold  the 
plate  firmly.  Against  this  spring,  or  against  the 
yielding  inside  edge  of  the  plate-holder,  which  may 
conceal  the  spring,  is  put  the  plate ; it  is  pressed  into 
place  gently  and  then  of  itself  it  is  forced  by  the 
spring  beneath  a little  ledge.  The  plate  must  not  be 
touched  on  the  sensitive  side,  and  should  be  held,  if 
possible,  so  that  the  direct  light  even  of  the  lamp 
does  not  reach  this  side.  Be  careful,  but  don’t  be 
scared. 

There  are  two  ways  of  knowing  which  is  the  sensi- 
tive side.  The  back  is  plain  glass  and  quite  shiny,  so 
that  if  you  let  it  reflect  the  light  from  the  lamp  you 
will  notice  its  brilliance.  The  other  side  is  duller. 
Even  if  you  cannot  see,  or  are  loading  plate-holders  in 
the  dark,  by  just  moistening  the  tip  of  your  Anger  and 
trying  at  an  extreme  corner  of  the  two  sides,  you  will 
find  that  the  sensitive  side  is  a trifie  sticky  when  wet. 
But,  as  we  have  already  explained,  the  plates  come  in 
regular  order,  face  to  face,  and  by  keeping  count  you 
will  always  know  whether  you  are  taking  a plate  out 
of  the  box  back  up  or  face  up.  The  odd  numbered 
plates  are  always  back  up.  As  soon  as  possible  after 
putting  the  plate  into  the  holder,  insert  the  slide  that 
covers  the  plate  and  adjust  the  little  catch  that  keeps 
the  slide  from  being  again  raised.  While  putting  one 
plate  in,  it  is  well  to  leave  all  the  rest  shielded  by  the 
black  paper,  and,  in  general,  even  in  the  dark  room, 
do  not  let  any  light  whatever  come  to  the  plates  if 
you  can  help  it,  never  exposing  more  than  one  at  a 
time. 

When  you  have  loaded  all  your  holders,  give  a 
last  examination  to  see  if  all  the  slides  are  in,  all 


68  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


plates  covered,  and  so  on,  before  you  light  the  room 
again. 

’■  Though  the  plates  are  so  carefully  wrapped,  you  will 
find  it  wise  to  dust  off  the  surface  of  each  one  gently 
just  before  putting  it  into  your  holder,  and  also  to  dust 
the  slide,  since  dust  is  everywhere. 

The  more  general  principles  apply  to  loading 
cameras  of  other  kinds  ; that  is,  to  get  along  with  as 
little  light  as  possible,  even  that  of  the  lamp  in  the 
dark  room.  The  reason  is  that  even  a slight  effect 
upon  the  plate  will  prevent  your  getting  clear  blacks 
in  your  final  print — which  require,  of  course,  almost 
perfectly  clear  glass  in  your  negatives. 

As  to  the  loading  of  cameras  that  take  roll-films, 
modern  cameras  of  this  kind  are  usually  loaded  in  day- 
light, and  in  this  loading  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  by  “ daylight  ” is  not  necessarily  meant  the 
brightest  light  possible.  It  is  much  safer  to  get  along 
with  as  little  light  as  is  convenient,  avoiding  bright 
sunshine  or  very  brilliantly  lighted  rooms  for  fear  that 
some  little  defect  in  your  roll  may  let  in  a gleam  of 
light.  Be  sure  also  to  follow  very  carefully  the  direc- 
tions about  getting  your  roll  right-side  up,  and  be  sure 
that  the  film  is  going  to  run  square  and  true  between 
the  rolls.  If  you  happen  to  get  a roll  in  wrongly,  wait 
until  you  can  go  to  the  dark  room  and  begin  over 
again  ; for,  of  course,  “ daylight  loading  ” means  only 
that  it  is  safe  to  load  in  daylight  when  everything 
goes  right. 

There  are  so  many  varieties  of  film  and  plate 
cameras  that  we  can  give  no  more  than  these  general 
directions,  but  with  each  kind  of  film  or  camera  you 
will  find  full  directions  given,  or  may  get  full  ex- 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAJIERA 


69 


planations  from  dealers,  who  are  only  too  glad  to  help 
the  amateur  by  advice.  Remember  that  it  is  to  their 
interest  that  you  should  get  good  results,  and  do  not 
be  ashamed  to  ask  about  even  the  simplest  matters. 
We  have  all  been  beginners,  and  all  remain  learners 
to  the  end. 

If  you  wish  to  be  very  methodical  (and  it  is  a most 
excellent  plan)  you  can  make  a little  list  of  the  things 
it  is  necessary  to  do  in  loading  your  camera  and  ad- 
justing it  for  use,  and  then  always  refer  to  this  list  to 
make  sure  they  are  all  done.  But  you  really  do  not 
need  to  write  out  such  a list,  since  you  will  find  it 
printed,  usually,  in  the  directions  that  come  with  your 
camera.  If  you  do  not  do  this,  you  will  find  some- 
times you  have  loaded  the  camera  while  leaving  the 
shutter  open,  thus  spoiling  the  first  plate  ; or  you  have 
not  set  back  to  (1)  the  device  for  numbering  the 
plates  used  in  the  magazine  camera ; or  in  some  way 
have  left  a part  unadjusted  and  so  will  spoil  plates. 
Never  be  ashamed  to  take  pains,  as  the  best  photog- 
raphers are  those  who  are  most  careful  of  details. 
You  will  be  amazed  to  find  how  many  things  can  go 
wrong. 

After  all,  the  best  direction  for  all  photographic 
work  is  to  use  your  brains  to  know  what  you  are 
doing  and  why.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  one  very 
clever  worker  suggested  that  if  a man  happened  to  be 
travelling  and  was  in  a hotel  bedroom  in  the  daylight, 
and  yet  had  to  load  plate-holders,  he  could  do  this 
with  perfect  safety,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  could 
neither  block  up  the  windows  nor  find  a room-  or 
closet  that  was  dark. 

The  way  in  which  this  feat  was  accomplished  was 


60  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


to  thrust  the  box  of  plates  and  the  plate-holders  under 
the  thick  covers  of  his  bed,  then,  working  at  arm’s 
length  with  the  bedcovers  tight  down,  he  was  able  to 
open  the  box,  take  out  the  plates,  load  the  plate- 
holders,  put  in  the  covers,  all  without  letting  light 
reach  the  plates. 

Such  a piece  of  ingenuity  might  do  at  a pinch,  but 
it  would  require  a very  careful  worker,  and  the  bed- 
covering would  have  to  be  decidedly  thick.  It  is  not 
a method  to  be  recommended,  except  as  showing  what 
may  be  done  at  a pinch. 

As  to  selecting  plates,  it  will  be  enough  at  first 
to  decide  whether  you  are  going  to  use  slow  or  quick 
plates.  This  will  depend  upon  what  you  mean  to 
photograph.  For  snap-shots,  you  will  want  the  quick 
plates;  for  landscapes  or  interiors  or  other  subject 
in  which  there  is  time  to  make  a long  exposure,  it  is 
much  wiser  to  get  the  slower  plates.  The  difference 
between  them  mainly  is  in  the  thickness  of  their  coat- 
ing and  also  in  their  chemical  preparation. 

In  the  quick  plates  you  must  come  closer  to  just 
the  right  time  of  exposure.  The  slow  plates  will  give 
a good  picture,  even  though  you  do  not  hit  so  closely 
the  right  time  of  exposing,  for  their  thicker  coating 
allows  the  action  of  the  weaker  rays  to  be  impressed 
more  deeply  on  the  emulsion,  and  a little  too  much 
exposure  given  to  the  brighter  rays  does  not  so  greatly 
matter  because  their  action  on  the  surface  of  the  plate 
tends  somewhat  to  protect  the  coating  below  from 
their  further  action.  Thus  the  brightest  rays  do  not 
produce  a greater  and  greater  effect  in  proportion  to 
the  exposure,  but  their  action  is  slower  and  slower, 
leaving  time  for  the  less  bright  rays  to  “ catch  up,” 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


61 


as  it  were.  We  shall  explain  this  more  clearly 
later. 

The  beginner  will  find  it  best  to  select  a plate  rec- 
ommended “ for  general  work,”  and  to  stick  to  that 
exclusively  at  first ; for  until  he  becomes  an  expert, 
he  will  not  have  occasion  to  photograph  unusual  sub- 
jects, such  as  frost-markings,  lace,  or  flowers,  or  waves 
or  athletes  in  motion. 

You  need  remember  now  only  that  if  you  can  give 
the  right  exposure  foi^  the  slower  plate  you  will  be 
more  apt  to  get  good  pictures  than  if  you  used  the 
quick  plates,  since  the  quick  plates  require  you  to  be 
very  exact  in  giving  the  right  time.  The  quickness 
and  slowness  is  denoted  by  names  and  numbers,  the 
higher  number  meaning  the  quicker  plate. 

In  films,  since  these  are  prepared  for  general  use, 
they  are  usually  of  one  quickness,  fitting  them  especially 
for  snap-shots  or  instantaneous  exposures.  It  is  there- 
fore important  to  get  the  exposure  of  films  right. 
Very  slow  plates  are  made  for  special  purposes,  such 
as  copying  other  pictures,  making  transparencies,  or 
lantern  slides,  and  so  on.  It  really  would  be  wise  for 
you  to  commence  with  not  the  quickest  plates,  though 
you  will  very  soon  begin  to  use  these.  And,  indeed, 
there  are  but  few  subjects  requiring  extreme  quickness, 
and  those  require  also  a “quick ’’lens  — one  with  a 
wide  opening  — a good  shutter  and  much  skill  in  mak- 
ing exposures.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  you 
will  get  richer,  better  negatives  from  the  slower  plates 
by  giving  them  enough  time.  The  slower  plates  also 
are  less  liable  to  bo  spoiled  in  the  developing  and  other 
processes. 

Of  course  the  taking  of  pictures  in  the  flash  of  an 


62  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


eyelid  is  very  wonderful,  but,  after  all,  the  most 
satisfactory  pictures  are  those  that  make  one  say 
“ How  beautiful ! ” rather  than  “ How  remarkable  ” ; 
and  you  are  really  more  likely  to  get  the  gooti 
pictures  when  you  can  take  time  enough  to  think  of 
what  you  are  taking.  The  difference  between  the 
so-called  “ quick  ” plates  and  those  of  the  next  degree 
of  rapidity  is  less  than  the  beginner  might  suppose. 

Before  making  your  exposure,  one  caution  is  neces- 
sary : if  you  should  take  apart  the  plate-holder,  you 
would  find  that  there  is  inside  a sort  of  little  shutter 
— a strip  moved  by  springs  — which  closes  the  slit 
through  which  the  cover  is  withdrawn.  This  shutter, 
or  strip,  rests  against  the  cover  of  the  plate-holder  as 
you  withdraw  it,  and  should  close  as  soon  as  the  cover 
is  drawn  completely  out.  If,  now,  you  draw  the 
cover  out  one  corner  first,  this  little  shutter  will  open 
and  light  will  get  in  at  the  top  of  the  holder,  slightly 
affecting  the  plate  at  the  upper  edge.  The  same  thing 
will  happen  if  in  putting  back  the  cover  you  put  one 
corner  in  first,  instead  of  putting  it  in  squarely.  For 
this  reason  it  is  well  to  be  sure  that  the  cover  is  drawn 
out  and  put  in  smoothly  and  squarely,  and  it  is  also 
Avise  not  to  let  the  sunshine  or  a strong  light  fall  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  plate-holder  where  it  projects 
from  the  camera.  If  you  wish  to  be  especially  care- 
ful you  may  put  a cloth  over  the  camera  while  you 
withdraw  the  slide,  or  cover. 

This  trouble  with  plate-holders  is  especially  common 
with  the  cheaper  grade,  and  with  old  plate-holders. 
You  may  know  that  this  defect  exists  when  you  find 
the  upper  edge  of  your  negatives  spoiled  by  bands 
or  portions  of  darkening  while  the  rest  of  the  neg- 


FIRST  USE  OF  THE  CAMERA 


63 


alive  is  clear  and  good.  You  may  see  where  the 
light  leaks  in  by  withdrawing  the  cover  as  you  look, 
toward  the  light,  through  the  slit  where  the  cover 
enters. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LEARNING  ABOUT  EXPOSURES 

What  to  seek  from  your  early  exposures  — The  best  first  subjects  — 
Makiug  the  camera  ready  — Things  to  be  careful  about  — The 
most  important  question  in  photography  — Length  of  exposure  — 
Exposure  meters — Things  that  affect  exposure  — Season  of  the 
year  — Time  of  day  — Weather  — Plate-speetl  — Lens  opening  — 
Quality  of  subject  — Distance  from  camera  — How  the  latitude 
of  the  plate  helps  — A rule  of  thumb  guide  — Diaphragms  — An 
experimental  method  — Exposure  less  difficult  than  it  sounds  — 
Development  does  little  to  aid  poor  exposure  — The  use  of  ready- 
made developers  at  first. 

We  have  now  supposed  you  to  have  gone  as  far  as 
choosing  a camera,  learning  about  its  more  important 
parts,  loading  it  with  plates,  and  being  ready  to  go 
forth  into  the  broad  world  and  take  pictures. 

But  we  wish  to  warn  you,  at  first,  against  going  too 
fast.  Do  not  be  anxious  to  secure  any  result  from 
your  first  few  exposures  except  experience.  It  may  be 
that  you  will  hit  upon  a masterpiece  of  the  photo- 
graphic art,  but  the  odds  are  decidedly  against  it ; 
and  you  will  be  likely  to  arrive  at  the  masterpiece  all 
the  sooner  if  you  look  upon  the  first  box  of  plates,  at 
the  very  least,  as  being  a means  of  teaching  yourself 
what  they  will  do. 

Set  before  yourself,  therefore,  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing a good  clear  photograph  of  whatever  you  at- 
tempt, and  put  aside  for  the  present  all  ideas  of  artistic 
results,  interesting  or  picturesque  composition,  and 
other  things  that  will  come  later. 

64 


LEARNING  ABOUT  EXPOSURES 


65 


If  you  wish  to  make  sure  that  the  first  plate  shall 
be  a success,  it  will  be  best  for  you  to  make  an  ex- 
posure upon  a distant  landscape  ; for  there  is  nothing 
in  the  world  so  easy  to  take.  In  the  first  place,  by 
taking  such  a picture  you  get  rid  of  all  troubles  about 
right  focusing.  You  will  find  on  your  camera  a 
focusing  scale  with  a pointer  that  moves  along  it 
showing  where  the  lens  is  to  be  placed  in  order  to 
take  objects  at  different  distances  in  feet.  If  there  are 
two  sets  of  numbers,  one  is  feet  and  the  other  meters. 
The  highest  number  they  give  }'ou  is  the  place  where 
you  ought  to  put  the  pointer  when  you  are  taking  a 
distant  landscape.  Your  experiment  in  focusing  upon 
a lighted  lamp  will  have  shown  you  already  that  be- 
yond a certain  distance  from  the  camera  all  objects 
are  in  true  focus,  or  so  near  it  that  the  eye  cannot  tell 
the  difference. 

Before  putting  in  the  plate-holder,  set  your  lens  at 
this  extreme  distance,  and  move  the  camera  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  upon  the  ground-glass  any  image  that 
pleases  your  fancy.  When  you  have  selected  the  right 
thing  to  take,  close  your  lens,  insert  the  plate-holder, 
being  sure  that  it  goes  in  rightly  until  it  is  chock  up 
in  place.  Set  your  shutter,  and  then  draw  out  the 
plate-holder  cover,  leaving  the  plate  ready  for  ex- 
posure. 

Remembering  what  has  been  said  about  the  need  of 
keeping  the  camera  motionless,  you  will  either  have 
set  it  up  upon  a firmly  planted  tripod,  all  parts  of 
which  are  set  securely,  or  will  have  selected  some 
steady  base  on  which  to  rest  your  camera.  Having 
done  so,  be  careful  that  you  do  not  spoil  your  picture 
by  setting  the  camera  so  that  the  picture  is  crooked 


66  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


upon  the  plate,  or  by  striking  the  camera  or  the  tripod 
in  moving  about  it  so  as  to  shake  your  plate  just  at 
the  moment  of  exposure.  Unless  you  are  careful  of 
these  things,  you  will  occasionally  do  them.  You 
have  no  idea  how  easy  it  is  to  catch  your  toe  under 
one  leg  of  the  camera  and  upset  the  whole  apparatus. 

The  same  cautions  apply  even  more  to  snap-shot  ex- 
posures, where  the  camera  is  in  the  hands  or  against 
the  body.  In  this  case  even  the  breath  must  be  held 
at  the  instant  of  exposure  and  the  camera  held  as 
steadily  as  possible. 

It  seems  almost  childish  to  insist  upon  things  so 
evident,  but  the  plates  and  exposures  ruined  by  these 
very  elementary  errors  are  numbered  by  the  thou- 
sands. If  we  could  each  imagine  that  plates  were 
worth  five  dollars  apiece,  there  would  be  ever  so  many 
fewer  spoiled  plates  in  the  world  ; and  even  though 
they  are  cheap,  you  should  take  pride  in  workman- 
like success. 

Now  you  are  ready  to  let  the  image  be  admitted  to 
the  sensitive  plate,  and  here  comes  the  most  difficult 
question  in  photography  — that  of  how  much  exposure 
to  give.  If  you  are  using  quick  plates,  and  the  light 
is  strong,  say  such  as  that  on  a sunshiny  day  in  sum- 
mer, the  exposure  will  be  a verj'  small  fraction  of  a 
second.  It  may  be  as  small  as  the  hundredth  part, 
or  even  less  with  a quicker  lens ; that  is,  with  one  that 
admits  of  a wider  opening  without  blurring  some  part 
of  the  image. 

We  must  lay  down  here  the  general  principles  that 
regulate  exposure,  and  perhaps  the  quickest  way  to 
get  at  this  is  to  tell  what  “exposure  meters”  are. 
There  are  for  sale  various  devices  for  measuring  ex- 


LEAEXING  ABOUT  EXPOSUEES 


67 


posures,  and  by  getting  an  idea  of  these  you  will  see 
how  many  things  have  to  be  considered  in  order  to 
decide  just  how  long  to  expose  a plate  in  a camera. 
These  meters  often  contain  a way  of  exposing  to  the 
light  a little  bit  of  sensitive  paper,  and  from  this  as  a 
starting-point  they  work  out  the  problem  of  exposing. 

This  problem  involves  a number  of  things.  First, 
the  time  of  the  year.  Though  the  light  of  the  sun 
does  not  vary,  the  direction  in  which  it  comes  to  us 
does  vary.  In  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  which 
we  live,  the  sun,  in  summer,  though  farther  away,  is 
highest  in  the  sky,  that  is,  more  directly  overhead  at 


Summer  Wiutep 


Diagram  XII 

noon.  In  winter,  it  is  further  south ; that  is,  if  its 
course  were  traced  out  as  a line  in  the  sky,  there 
would  he  drawn  for  midsummer  a semi-circular  arch 
from  east  to  west,  going  almost  directly  overhead.  In 
winter  there  would  be  another,  similar  arch,  all  of 
which  would  lie  southward  of  the  first. 

Now  when  the  sunlight  comes  to  us  slanting,  it 
travels  through  more  air,  and  is  weaker.  So  in  winter 


68  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


exposures  need  to  be  longer  than  in  summer.  If  you 
imagine  the  sun  to  be  travelling  on  its  course,  either 
in  winter  or  summer,  you  will  see  that  it  comes  most 
directly  to  us  at  noon,  and  comes  through  thicker  lay- 
ers of  air  both  morning  and  evening.  When  just 
above  the  horizon,  either  east  or  west,  it  is  at  its  worst 
for  photography.  At  noon  it  is  at  its  best  so  far  as 
brightness  is  concerned  and  chemical  action  ; (though 
we  shall  see  later  that  the  absence  of  long  shadows  in 
a picture  taken  at  noon  is  considered  by  good  pho- 
tographers a drawback).  So  we  are  compelled  to  con- 
sider time  of  year  and  time  of  day. 

Next  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  speed  of  the  plate 
we  are  using,  and  the  size  of  the  opening  for  light 
through  the  lens,  — all  these  things,  whatever  the 
subject  we  are  taking. 

Next  we  have  to  think  of  how  much  light  the  sub- 
ject gives  off  and  the  colour  of  that  light.  ' Last,  we 
have  to  think  of  the  question  of  distance  from  the 
camera.  The  further  away  the  object  is,  the  more  the 
light  will  be  interfered  with  by  the  air  and  the  hazi- 
ness it  produces,  especially  when  containing  dust  or 
moisture.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  soften  or  lighten 
distant  shadows,  producing  the  same  effect  as  if  there 
were  more  light  on  the  object.  This  effect  is  not  im- 
portant for  distances  less  than  perhaps  a hundred  feet 
from  the  camera,  but  beyond  that  it  tends  to  shorten 
the  exposure.  Experts  say  that  for  very  distant  ob- 
jects the  exposure  is  perhaps  lessened  by  one-tenth,  for 
this  reason.  The  further  away  an  object  is,  also,  the 
more  light-rays  will  be  reflected  so  as  to  enter  the 
camera  ; the  nearer  it  is  to  the  lens,  the  less  light  it  will 
reflect  and  the  duller  image  it  will  give. 


Photograph  by  Dr.  A.  R.  RfneJict  Courtesy  of  Pholo-Pia  Magazine 


“The  Man  on  the  I!ox  “ 

A good  study  in  composition.  The  picture  would  lose  much 
of  its  effect  if  the  puddles  in  the  foreground,  catching  the  light, 
were  absent,  or  if  the  cabman's  body  did  not  follow  the  lines  of 
the  trees  overhead. 


LEARNING  ABOUT  EXPOSURES 


G9 


As  to  colour,  we  have  already  spoken.  This  whole 
matter  turns  on  how  many  of  the  active  rays,  those 
toward  the  violet  end  of  the  spectrum,  are  sent  into 
the  camera,  and  how  many  of  the  less  active  rays, 
those  toward  the  red  end. 

All  these  things  are  laid  down  in  the  directions  that 
come  with  the  exposure  meter.  You  have  to  set  the 
little  instrument  for  time  of  year,  time  of  day, 
character  of  weather,  whether  bright  or  dull,  nature 
of  object  taken,  and  its  distance  from  the  camera. 

Complicated  as  this  sounds,  fortunately  we  are  not 
compelled  to  get  an  answer  to  the  problem  that  would 
satisfy  a college  professor  examining  you  in  your 
knowledge  of  photography.  The  fact  that  the  plates 
have  a certain  latitude  comes  to  our  assistance.  This 
means  that  they  will  give  good  results  even  if  you  do 
not  always  work  out  the  problem  exactly  to  a small 
fraction  of  a second. 

Perhaps  a good  rule-of-thumb  guide  may  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  ordinary  film  such  as  is  supplied  for 
cameras  is  sensitive  enough  to  take  good  clear  pictures 
on  a bright  day  in  something  like  one-fiftieth  of  a 
second,  with  a lens  of  fairly  good  quality  working 
with  an  opening  about  one-eighth  of  the  lens’s  focal 
distance  (designated  on  the  diaphragm  indicator  by  the 
figure  8).  It  is  such  a lens  as  this  that  is  supplied 
with  most  hand  cameras  of  fairly  good  quality.  This 
gives  a sort  of  rule  by  which  to  estimate  our  exposures. 
Under  very  favourable  conditions,  you  can  take  good 
pictures  outdoors  by  means  of  instantaneous  ex- 
posures of  from  one  one-hundredth  to  one-fifteenth  of 
a second. 

As  to  the  use  of  diaphragms,  you  have  already  read 


70  PIIOTOGEAPIIY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  rule  that  we  must  multiply  by  four  whenever  we 
diminish  the  diameter  of  the  opening  one-half.  As  to 
subject,  before  we  discuss  this  very  closely,  it  will  be 
enough  to  say  that  when  you  come  to  take  indoor  pic- 
tures near  a window,  with  the  same  sort  of  a camera 
that  we  have  described,  you  will  find  yourself  able  to 
get  good  results  by  an  exposure  under  favourable  con- 
ditions, good  light,  and  so  on,  of  three  to  five  seconds. 
In  the  middle  of  a dark  room  you  might  have  to  in- 
crease this  exposure  to  thirty  seconds. 

All  this,  you  may  well  say,  is  vague ; but  it  is  to 
know  something  more  definite  about  these  conditions 
that  you  are  asked  to  make  use  of  your  first  box  of 
plates. 

There  has  been  recommended  recently  in  the  photo- 
graphic magazines  a very  good  method  of  judging  the 
necessary  amount  of  exposure  by  a practical  trial. 
This  is  done  by  making  several  exposures  on  one  plate, 
first  withdrawing  the  cov^er  slide  of  your  plate-holder 
only  about  one-fourth  the  distance,  so  as  to  expose  a 
quarter  of  the  plate  only.  To  this  you  give  an  ex- 
posure of  one-fiftieth  of  a second.  Then,  withdrawing 
the  cover  another  quarter,  or  half  way  out,  give  a 
second  exposure  of  the  same  length.  Repeat  this  fdr 
the  two  remaining  quarters,  being  very  careful  not  to 
stir  the  camera  any  more  than  you  can  help,  and  the 
result  will  be  that  you  will  have  exposed  a plate  in  four 
different  strips  along  its  length.  The  first  strip  will 
have  been  exposed  for  four-fiftieths  of  a second,  the 
next  for  three-fiftieths  of  a second,  the  third  for  two- 
fiftieths  of  a second,  and  the  last  quarter  for  one- 
fiftieth  of  a second.  This  is  supposed  to  be  for  such  a 
distant  landscape  view  as  has  been  recommended  for 


LEARNING  ABOUT  EXPOSURES 


71 


making  your  first  exposure.  When  you  come  to 
develop  this  plate  you  will  see  experimentally  for  your- 
self what  effect  is  produced  by  four  exposures  of  dif- 
ferent lengths,  the  longest  being  four  times  as  long  as 
the  shortest. 

This  same  experiment  may  of  course  be  applied,  and 
should  be  applied,  to  making  time-exposures  of  greater 
length.  In  this  case  you  might  make  the  exposures 
four,  three,  two,  and  one  seconds.  If  this  is  done  upon 
a fairly  lighted  subject,  not  in  full  sunshine  outdoors, 
you  will  probably  find  that  your  longest  exposure  is 
too  long.  Indeed,  in  a bright  light  they  may  all  be 
too  long;  but  on  a grey  day  one  of  them  is  apt  to  be 
right,  or  nearly  right,  enough  so  that  you  can  see 
which  is  nearest  correct. 

We  shall  give  you,  in  a chapter  devoted  to  tables 
and  formulffi,  some  of  the  guides  that  have  been 
drawn  up  by  experts  to  help  you  to  measure  the 
strength  of  light  and  to  judge  of  the  subjects  requir- 
ing longer  and  shorter  exposures.  By  turning  to 
these  you  will  obtain  an  idea  of  these  elements  which 
change  the  amount  of  exposure ; but  you  may  take 
comfort  in  the  fact  that  every  photographer  very  soon 
learns  some  knack  at  guessing  correct  exposures,  or 
near  enough  to  them  for  all  practical  purposes.  Ex- 
posure meters  are,  however,  very  useful;  even  the 
simplest  are  useful  as  guides,  and  cost  very  little,  con- 
sisting only  of  a card  of  paper  or  celluloid  with  sliders 
or  disks  allowing  you  to  adjust  them  to  suit  the  condi- 
tions of  light  and  subject,  lens  and  plate. 

You  have  been  warned  of  all  the  difficulties  of  judg- 
ing an  exposure,  so  that  you  may  see  it  is  a subject 
well  worth  your  special  attention ; but  we  must  repeat 


72  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


that  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  a bogey  of  it.  In 
actual  practice,  many  of  your  pictures  will  be  taken  in 
the  open  air  and  in  good  light,  with  plates  or  films 
that  give  you  a margin  in  judging  the  length  of  ex- 
posure ; and  you  will  realize  that  in  taking  indoor  pic- 
tures the  time  required  is  increased  from  a fraction  of 
a second  perhaps  to  three  or  four  seconds,  or  more  in 
places  not  well  lighted.  For  taking  snap-shots  in  the 
winter  months,  when  the  light  is  poorest,  you  wdll 
need  a diaphragm  of  large  opening. 

If  we  add  to  these  few  general  directions  the  fact 
that  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  giving  plenty  of 
time,  and  to  expose  for  the  shadows  rather  than  the 
lights,  we  shall  have  told  you  all  that  is  necessary  for 
you  to  learn  at  the  beginning. 

It  used  to  be  said  that  even  if  an  exposure  was  not 
right,  the  error  could  be  corrected  w'hen  the  plate  was 
developed,  by  changing  the  proportions  of  different 
ingredients  in  the  developer,  or  by  developing  for  a 
longer  or  a shorter  time,  and  so  on.  But  the  latest 
theories  do  not  permit  us  to  take  this  view.  Even  if 
developing  can  make  some  difference  in  plates,  it  is 
mainly  a difference  in  the  time  required  to  make 
prints  from  them,  and  not  a difference  in  the  quality 
of  the  print  produced  — that  is,  in  the  relation  of  the 
light  and  shade. 

Consequently  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
make  your  exposures  with  as  much  judgment  as  you 
can  possibly  give  to  them,  and  so  we  recommend  un- 
qualifiedly the  use  of  the  exposure  meter,  at  least  in 
the  beginning  and  until  you  have  trained  yourself  to 
judge  with  some  correctness  about  the  conditions  and 
to  bear  them  all  in  mind.  The  expense  is  small ; the 


LEARNING  ABOUT  EXPOSURES 


73 


benefit  to  your  skill  is  very  great,  and  the  saving  in 
plates  will  be  considerable. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  after  trying  a landscape  or 
two  you  have  made  several  varying  exposures  to  the 
best  of  your  ability,  and  are  ready  to  develop  them. 
AVe  do  not  need  to  repeat  what  we  have  already  said 
in  regard  to  the  dark  room,  as  to  being  sure  that  the 
light  is  safe  and  that  the  room  is  made  as  comfortable 
for  you  as  possible.  Developing  is  a matter  that 
needs  all  one’s  careful  attention,  and  you  should  not 
bo  distracted  by  being  uncomfortable,  by  stumbling 
over  furniture,  by  upsetting  trays,  by  stopping  to  look 
for  things  in  the  dark.  Again,  you  must  begin  by  ar- 
ranging in  convenient  and  handy  places  whatever 
you  are  going  to  use  in  the  process.  Ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  is  wisely  expended  in  thinking  over  carefully 
just  what  you  are  going  to  do  from  beginning  to  end, 
and  preparing  everything  ready  to  hand  so  that  it  may 
be  picked  up  as  soon  as  needed  and  in  the  order 
needed.  Since  it  is  the  intention  here  to  describe  the 
most  usual  way  of  proceeding,  we  will  not  as  yet  take 
up  the  question  of  which  developer  you  are  to  use ; 
that  will  be  treated  later,  and  here  we  shall  assume 
that  you  have  the  developer  made  ready  by  dissolving 
some  of  the  powders  already  measured,  and  standing 
in  a graduate,  or  measuring-glass,  from  which  it  is  to 
be  poured. 

You  should  use  the  developing  powders  or  mixed 
liquid  developers  as  sold  ready  for  use ; for  this  is  ad- 
visable at  first.  There  is  plenty  to  learn  in  photog- 
raphy without  trying  to  learn  all  parts  of  the  proc- 
esses at  once.  Therefore,  until  you  have  become  used 
to  the  general  way  of  taking  pictures  and  making 


74  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOE  YOUEG  PEOPLE 


negatives  you  will  profit  by  getting  materials  all 
ready-made,  and  giving  your  attention  to  learning 
what  they  will  do  and  how  they  act.  So  follow 
directions,  and  leave  the  “ whys  ” of  chemistry  until 
later. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FIRST  STEPS  IN  DEVELOPING 

The  necessities  — Taking  out  the  plate  — Pouring  on  the  developer  — 
First  signs  of  development  — Burton  on  the  magic  of  developing 
— Watching  development  — What  takes  place  — Keeping  the  de- 
veloper at  right  temperature — When  development  is  complete  — 
Fixing  the  plate  — How  long  to  leave  it  in  the  hypo  — The  reason 
for  washing  after  fixing  — Thorough  washing  necessary  — Drying 
— Varnishing  especially  valuable  negatives. 

The  real  necessities  of  developing  are ; three  trays, 
at  the  least ; one  for  the  developer,  which  should 
stand  directly  in  front  of  you  and  where  it  can  re- 
ceive the  light  of  the  lantern.  Next  to  that,  right  or 
left,  as  you  find  it  convenient,  have  a tray  of  cold 
water;  beyond  that,  your  tray  of  hypo.  A fourth 
tray,  for  washing,  will  make  your  work  easier.  Be- 
sides the  trays,  you  will  find  it  well  to  have  something 
to  lift  the  plates  from  the  different  trays.  For  this 
purpose  we  think  there  is  nothing  better  than  a clean 
new  stick,  sharpened  to  a broad,  flat  end.  You  also 
should  have  a piece  of  cloth  to  serve  as  a towel,  but 
one  that  you  will  not  mind  spoiling  with  chemicals ; 
a large,  clean  rag  is  just  the  thing. 

Now,  with  the  lamp  turned  pretty  well  down,  but 
still  high  enough  to  give  you  a fair  amount  of  light, 
and  with  your  glass  of  developer  standing  close  to 
your  developing  tray  where  you  can  pick  it  up  quickly 
without  knocking  it  over,  you  are  ready  to  begin. 

Holding  your  plate-holder  vertical  in  such  a way 

76 


76  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


that  the  plate  you  are  to  develop  is  toward  you  and 
away  from  the  light,  draw  out  the  cover  promptly, 
press  down  the  little  spring  that  keeps  the  plate  in 
place,  letting  the  plate  be  tipped  a little  forward  so 
that  you  can  take  it  by  the  edges  but  keeping  it  close 
to  your  body  so  it  will  not  fall  out.  It  is  then  wise  to 
dust  oif  the  surface  very  gently  with  a soft,  dry  brush 
of  camel’s-hair  or  with  a bit  of  cotton.  Put  it  into 
the  developing  tray,  hack  downward,  without  delay, 
and  then  raising  the  tray  and  plate  in  your  left  hand, 
pour  the  developer  over  the  plate  in  the  way  recom- 
mended by  Bayley,  the  English  photographer;  that  is, 
letting  it  flow  without  splashing,  but  very  quickly, 
from  one  corner  of  the  plate  in  a little  wave  over  the 
whole  surface.  This  will  prevent  little  bubbles  of  air 
being  caught  below  the  developer  and  making  spots, 
and  will  avoid  streaks  caused  by  wetting  the  plate 
unevenly. 

As  soon  as  the  plate  is  seen  to  be  covered  and  free 
from  air  bubbles,  put  a piece  of  pasteboard  over  the 
tray  so  that  while  the  plate  is  still  sensitive  it  may  be 
as  nearly  in  the  dark  as  possible.  If  your  plate  has 
been  exposed  somewhere  near  the  right  time,  it  will, 
after  a few  seconds,  begin  to  show  signs  of  develop- 
ment, and  by  raising  the  pasteboard  now  and  then  for 
an  instant,  you  may  keep  on  the  watch  for  these 
signs. 

From  what  has  been  said  already  you  know  that 
the  effect  of  the  exposure  has  been  to  make  some  un- 
known change  in  the  coating  of  the  plate,  preparing 
it  to  bo  acted  on  by  the  developer ; and  that  this 
change  has  been  greater  or  less  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent amounts  of  light  that  have  been  thrown  by  the 


FIKST  STEPS  IN  DEVELOPING 


77 


lens  upon  different  parts  of  its  surface.  Wherever  the 
brightest  light  has  rested,  the  action  of  the  developer 
will  begin  earliest : the  plate  will  be  seen  to  darken  at 
this  point. 

One  of  the  pioneers  of  modern  photography,  the 
Englishman,  Burton,  says  in  regard  to  developing: 
“ Now,  if  everything  has  been  rightly  done,  will  be- 
gin one  of  the  most  wonderful  of  the  phenomena  of 
science  or  nature  which  man  has  been  given  the 
power  to  control,  a phenomenon  which  is  always  new 
and  always  beautiful  — the  development  of  the  latent 
image.  Let  the  beginner  watch  it  closely.  The 
plate  has  no  indication  of  having  been  acted  upon  at 
all,  before  the  developer  was  poured  over  it.  After 
perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  seconds  there  is  a slight 
darkening  of  some  part  . . . the  brighter  parts 

of  the  landscape  have  become  visible  in  negative. 

. . . Now  is  the  time  when  you  can  tell  whether 

the  exposure  has  been  correct.  If  it  has  been,  the 
development  will  progress  with  beautiful  regu- 
larity.” 

We  would  by  all  means  advise  you  to  see  a correctly 
exposed  plate  developed  by  some  one  else  who  is 
familiar  with  the  process  before  attempting  it  for 
yourself.  But  if  you  have  taken  the  advice  given,  to 
begin  by  making  an  exposure  upon  a distant  land- 
scape, and  have  given  anywhere  near  the  correct  ex- 
posure, you  will  probably  have  no  difficulty  in  devel- 
oping your  first  plate. 

As  you  w’atch  the  process  you  will  see  the  brightest 
parts  appear  first  and  these  will  be  followed  by  others 
in  regular  order  until  every  part  of  the  plate  is  dark- 
ened except  those  parts  where  the  light  has  hardly 


78 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


acted  at  all  — that  is,  those  parts  of  the  landscape 
which  looked  very,  very  dark  to  the  eye. 

The  next  question  that  will  come  up  for  your  de- 
cision is  when  to  stop  the  development  by  taking  the 
plate  out  of  the  developer. 

A photographic  dealer  suggested  to  the  writer  that 
amateurs  should  be  carefully  informed  that  the  devel- 
oping solution  will  not  “ eat  away  the  plate  ” — which, 
he  says,  is  a very  prevalent  idea.  You  need  not  be 
afraid  of  this,  as  the  effect  of  the  developer  is  only  to 
darken  the  silver  compound  where  light  has  acted, 
and  in  proportion  as  it  has  acted.  It  is  true  that  the 
solution  does  soak  into  and  thus  soften  the  emulsion  ; 
if  it  did  n’t,  it  could  not  reach  the  silver  compound  in 
it,  but  the  emulsion  will  not  dissolve  if  your  solution 
is  not  too  warm.  It  certainly  should  not  be  warmer 
than  sixty-five  degrees,  and  may  be  as  cold  as  sixty 
degrees.  This  need  not  worry  you,  however,  for  it 
really  is  only  the  temperature  of  a rather  cool  room, 
not  hot  enough  to  make  you  uncomfortable,  nor  cold 
enough  to  make  you  chilly.  In  summer,  you  may 
easily  keep  your  developer  at  the  right  temperature 
by  partly  filling  a rubber  bag  (hot-water  bag)  with 
cold  water,  and  resting  your  tray  upon  this.  Or  you 
may  rest  your  developing  tray  in  an  outer  one  in  which 
there  is  a little  water  kept  cool  by  a bit  of  ice.  The 
hot-water  bag  filled  with  warm  water  could  also  be 
used  in  winter  if  you  have  to  develop  in  a very  cold 
room. 

As  to  judging  when  the  plate  has  been  sufficiently 
developed,  that  is  another  of  the  things  best  learned 
by  experience ; but,  in  general,  you  should  keep  it  in 
the  developer  until  all  of  the  detail  can  be  seen  fairly 


FIKST  STEPS  IN  DEVELOPING 


79 


well  when  the  developed  plate  is  held  up  between  your 
eye  and  the  dark-room  lantern.  By  the  time  the  de- 
velopment is  completed,  too,  you  will  be  able  to  see  at 
least  the  dark  portions  of  the  image  by  looking  at  the 
reverse  side  of  the  plate.  It  is  well  to  develop  pretty 
thoroughly,  since  the  effect  of  a long  development,  if 
not  extreme,  is  mainly  to  make  the  plate  print  a little 
more  slowly,  while  under-development  will  leave  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  image  unfinished,  not  brought 
out  — a much  more  serious  fault. 

The  methods  of  developing  by  time  and  temperature 
alone,  without  watching,  will  be  given  at  another 
place. 

As  soon  as  the  image  has  appeared  over  the  whole 
plate,  you  may  safely  turn  up  your  red  light  flame  so 
as  to  be  able  to  see  very  clearly,  for  the  plate  has  lost 
a great  deal  of  its  sensitiveness  and  does  n’t  need  nearly 
so  much  protection  from  red  light. 

As  soon  as  you  have  decided  the  plate  to  be  rightly 
developed,  place  it  in  a tray  of  clear  water  for  a mo- 
ment, so  as  to  rinse  the  developer  from  it,  and  then 
put  it  promptly  into  the  hypo  tray.  Of  course  in  all 
cases  your  plate  should  be  face  upward  so  that  noth- 
ing will  injure  its  surface,  and  nothing  but  the  solu- 
tion should  touch  the  surface,  since  when  wet  it  is  very 
easily  injured.  For  this  reason,  if  you  use  the  sticks 
for  lifting,  do  it  with  the  utmost  caution  to  prevent 
their  touching  the  face  of  the  plate.  The  only  object 
in  using  them  is  not  to  put  the  fingers  too  much  into 
the  liquids. 

What  you  have  done  so  far  is  to  change  that  portion 
of  the  silver  compound  which  has  been  affected  by  the 
light  into  metallic  silver,  which,  when  finally  divided, 


80  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


is  dark,  and  which  is  insoluble  in  water  or  hypo.  The 
next  step,  the  one  which  you  began  by  putting  your 
plate  in  the  hypo  tray,  is  to  melt  away  the  compound 
that  has  not  been  made  insoluble  by  light  and  devel- 
oper compounds.  Consequently  you  leave  the  plate 
in  the  hypo  until  this  white  compound,  or  part  that  is 
unaffected,  completely  disappears,  and  your  plate  looks 
dark  all  over. 

But  even  then  the  hypo  has  not  finished  its  work.  It 
has  dissolved  the  undarkened  silver,  but  it  has  changed  it 
into  another  chemical  compound  that  also  must  be  dis- 
solved out,  even  though  it  is  an  invisible  one.  Conse- 
quently, to  get  rid  of  this,  you  must  leave  the  plate  in 
the  hypo  nearly  as  long  again.  After  coming  from 
the  hypo  bath,  the  plate  has  ceased  to  be  sensitive  to 
light,  and  so  far  as  that  plate  is  concerned,  you  are  at 
liberty  to  examine  it  freely  by  any  artificial  light,  or 
even  by  dajdight. 

But  although  our  plate  is  now  safe  from  light,  it  is 
not  yet  clear  of  chemicals  that  will  do  it  injury.  It 
now  consists  of  a wet  compound  containing  the  me- 
tallic silver  that  makes  the  negative,  but  also  contain- 
ing the  hypo  solution,  which,  if  left  in  the  negative, 
would  crystallize  when  dry,  and  ruin  it.  Consequently 
there  must  follow  a thorough  washing,  either  in  run- 
ning water  or  in  successive  baths,  until  all  the  h}q)o  is 
drained  out. 

This  process  is  usually  underdone,  but  if  your  nega- 
tive is  to  last,  it  must  be  done  thoroughly,  and  “ thor- 
oughly ” means  until  you  are  tired  to  death  of  it.  The 
makers  of  the  kodak  film,  for  example,  recommend 
that  their  films  be  soaked  in  five  changes  of  water, 
five  minutes  each  time,  occasionally  moving  the  film 


FIEST  STEPS  IN  DEVELOPING 


81 


about.  Or  they  recommend  two  such  changes,  fol- 
lowed by  an  hour  in  gently  running  water.  The  plate 
will  not  require  quite  so  long  a washing,  but  you  will 
be  very  glad  if  you  always  err  on  the  side  of  thorough- 
ness. Otherwise,  some  time  in  the  future  when  you 
take  up  a favourite  negative  you  will  find  it  stained 
and  ruined,  and  will  recall  sadly  Whittier’s  lines  about 
what  “ might  have  been.” 

After  the  washing,  comes  the  drying.  You  may 
safely,  if  carefully,  wipe  all  moisture  from  the  back  of 
the  plate,  but  avoid  the  tragedy  of  making  a mistake 
as  to  which  is  the  back.  By  looking  along  the  edges 
you  will  soon  see  the  difference  between  the  smooth 
edge  of  the  glass  side  and  the  slightly  puffy,  irregular 
edge  of  the  film  side.  The  plate  should  not  be  set  up 
to  dry  so  that  it  will  touch  anything  else.  If  it  is  put 
with  others  in  the  drying-rack,  there  should  be  a good 
distance  between  them  — certainly  two  or  three  inches, 
at  least — otherwise  your  plates  will  dry  too  slowly. 
A quick  drying  is  important,  since  in  some  cases 
skilled  photographers  tell  us  that  the  clearness  and 
sharpness  of  the  image  suffers  by  too  prolonged  a dry- 
ing. But  remember  that  the  drying  must  not  be 
helped  by  putting  the  plate  in  warm  air  or  in  the  sun- 
shine, for  fear  of  melting  the  softened  film  — which 
is  easily  done. 

A little  point  worth  remembering  is  the  necessity 
of  removing  from  the  lowest  corner  of  the  plate  the 
drop  of  water  that  forms  there  when  it  is  put  up  to 
dry.  You  can  remove  this  by  a touch  of  a soft  cloth 
or  a bit  of  cotton,  or  even  with  the  finger,  and  your 
plate  will  dry  faster.  Until  thoroughly  dry,  do  not 
think  of  attempting  to  print  from  the  negative,  for 


82  PIIOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


fear  that  the  printing-out  paper  and  the  negative  will 
stick  together  in  the  frame. 

We  do  not  know  anything  more  important  to  insist 
upon  in  all  this  question  of  developing  than  care  in 
not  letting  anything  touch  the  film  and  injure  the 
negative.  It  is  so  easy,  and  so  irremediable,  to  dam- 
age the  wet  surface.  Once  the  negative  is  dry,  it  is 
not  so  easily  hurt. 

A last  process  to  insure  the  keeping  of  the  negative 
is  to  varnish  it.  This  is  done  by  gently  warming  the 
dried  plate,  and  pouring  the  varnishing  liquid  smoothly 
over  the  level  surface,  and  then  draining  the  surplus 
off  at  one  corner  into  the  bottle  again.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  necessary  to  varnish  plates  except  as  an  extra 
precaution  to  preserve  an  unusually  valuable  negative. 
If  negatives  are  properly  kept  in  paper  or  in  boxes, 
they  will  be  safe  enough. 


CHAPTER  YIII 

MAKING  A PRINT 


Judging  your  negative  — The  true  object  to  get  good  prints  — print- 
ingout  paper  and  developing  paper  — The  printing-frame  — 
Errors  in  using  the  printing-frame  — Printing  by  diffused  light  — 
Toning  the  print  — Washing  before  toning  — Toning  with  gold 
— Fixing  with  hypo  — Cleanliness  essential  — Trimming  the 
prints — Mounting  — Developing  papers  — The  strength  of  light 
in  printing  — How  to  test  it  — Varieties  of  developing  papers  — 
Brush-development  — Local  development. 

When  your  plate  is  thoroughly  dry,  and  not  until 
then,  will  you  know  for  certain  the  value  of  the  result 
you  have  reached,  for  the  only  test  of  a negative  is 
the  making  of  a print  from  it ; and  this  for  the  reason 
that  the  transparency  of  the  plate  when  held  up  to 
the  light  does  not  give  you  an  entirely  correct  idea 
of  what  sort  of  a print  can  be  made  from  it.  It  does, 
however,  tell  you  a great  deal  about  the  relation  of 
lights  and  shades  in  your  negative  — whether  there  is 
a good  gradation  from  the  darkest  to  the  lightest,  or 
whether  they  are  too  much  alike  all  through. 

Even  if  your  plate,  however,  should  not  be  very 
transparent  to  your  eye,  if,  in  other  words,  although  it 
has  a good  breadth  of  values  (which  means  a great 
many  different  darker  and  lighter  shades,  shown  in  the 
right  relation  to  one  another)  it  may  yet  give  you  an 
excellent  print  provided  it  be  left  long  enough  ex- 
posed to  the  light  in  the  printing-frame.  And  in  the 
same  way,  even  if  your  plate  be  what  is  called  “ thin,” 

83 


84  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


tliat  is,  very  transparent  in  general,  yet  if  there  is 
the  same  range  in  value,  the  same  differences  in  light 
and  shade,  you  will  get  a good  print  from  the  nega- 
tive provided  you  do  not  leave  it  printing  too  long. 

This  is  another  way  of  saying  that  what  we  must  try 
to  get  in  our  exposure  and  developing  is  true  relation  in 
light  and  shade^  whether  the  whole  plate  be  dense  or 
thin  — that  is,  whether  it  needs  to  be  printed  only 
a short  time,  or  is  a slow  printer. 

In  examining  your  negative,  therefore,  the  first 
thing  is  to  compare  its  lightest  with  its  darkest  parts, 
and  to  see  whether  there  is  something  of  the  same 
difference  between  them  that  there  was  in  the  scene 
you  have  photographed.  If  you  have  succeeded  in 
keeping  the  relation  true,  if  your  blacks  and  whites 
are  not  too  near  together  or  too  far  apart  in  value, 
you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  made  a good  negative, 
and  with  care  you  will  be  able  to  make  a good  print 
from  it. 

It  is  a wise  maxim  in  photography  that  the  object 
of  the  whole  process  from  the  beginning  is  to  get 
good  prints,  and  all  the  rest  is  but  a means  to  this 
end.  Until  you  have  made  a good  print,  you  have 
not  done  what  you  set  out  to  do. 

As  to  printing  methods,  we  shall  consider  in  this 
general  going  over  the  subject  only  two  main  methods 
of  printing  from  the  negative.  These  two  consist 
really  in  using  two  kinds  of  paper.  One  sort  is  known 
as  “printing-out”  paper  (or  as  the  English  call  it, 
“ P.  O.  P.”)  for  the  reason  that  by  exposing  a piece  of 
the  paper  to  light  when  it  is  covered  by  the  negative 
we  secure  a print  at  once.  The  other  method  uses 
what  is  known  as  “ developing  paper  ” (such  as 


MAKING  A PRINT 


85 


bromide,  Velox,  Cyko,  and  so  on).  In  this,  although 
there  is  a printing  process,  the  paper  is  developed  by 
a process  of  regular  developing,  exactly  as  if  you  had 
exposed  a plate,  and  until  development  is  finished  you 
do  not  see  the  print  in  anything  like  the  state  it  is  to 
reach. 

The  first  of  these  methods  is  the  older  one,  and 
consists  in  using  paper  so  coated  that  under  the  nega- 
tive it  is  exposed  to  the  light  and  printed  until  the 
image  is  as  dark  or  darker  than  it  is  meant  finally  to 
be.  The  apparatus  used  for  this  purpose  is  known  as 
a printing-frame.  It  consists  of  a frame  that  holds 
the  negative,  film  side  inward,  so  that  the  paper  can 
be  placed  with  its  glossy  side  toward  the  film,  and 
then  covered  by  means  of  a hinged  back.  The  whole 
object  of  the  frame  is  to  keep  the  paper  and  film  firmly 
and  immovably  together  while  printing,  and  yet  allow 
you  to  examine  a part  of  the  print  to  see  whether  it  is 
printed  enough. 

The  best  printing-frames  are  those  which  are 
closely  fitted  to  the  size  of  the  negative  you  are  using 
and  allow  the  widest  surface  of  the  negative  to  be 
reached  by  the  light.  The  front  of  the  frame  should 
be  thick  enough  to  be  rigid,  but  should  cast  as  little 
shadow  as  possible  on  the  negative.  The  back  should 
also  bo  hinged  firmly  so  as  not  to  move  from  side  to 
side,  the  pieces  under  which  the  springs  go  should  be 
kept  tightly  screwed  into  place,  and  the  springs  should 
be  strong  enough  to  exert  quite  a pressure  upon  the 
paper  but  yet  to  turn  easily  when  the  movable  part  of 
the  back  is  being  opened  to  look  at  the  print.  The 
best  backs  are  those  which  are  cut  in  two  unequal 
pieces  so  that  the  larger  one  will  allow  you  to  see  a 


86  PnOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


large  part  of  the  print.  Sometimes  you  will  find  on 
them  a little  numbered  wheel.  This  is  merely  a means 
by  which  the  printer  keeps  account  of  the  number  of 
prints  he  has  taken  from  that  frame. 

In  setting  up  your  frame  for  printing  be  careful  to 
turn  it  squarely  toward  the  light  so  that  the  front  of 
the  frame  shall  not  by  means  of  its  edges  cast  little 
shadows,  shadows  that  will  keep  part  of  the  negative 
from  printing.  The  mistakes  one  is  apt  to  make  in 
printing  are : allowing  the  negative  to  fall,  putting  the 
paper  in  with  the  hack  against  the  negative,  or  crooked, 
setting  the  frame  Avhere  a shadow  will  fall  across  it, 
either  at  the  time  it  is  set  out  or  later  (because  the 
earth  is  moving),  unfastening  both  ends  of  the  back  at 
once  before  you  are  certain  the  printing  is  finished, 
and  (for  a beginner)  forgetting  that  you  are  making  a 
print,  and  so  leaving  it  too  long.  You  may  not  think 
you  are  apt  to  forget  having  put  a printing-frame  in 
the  light,  but  if  you  are  busy  at  other  things  you  will 
often  find  that  the  print  is  entirely  forgotten,  while 
you  are  about  something  else. 

Skilled  photographers  will  tell  you  that  it  is  always 
best  to  print  by  means  of  diffused  light  — that  is, 
not  in  the  direct  ra}’^s  of  the  sun.  This  is  undoubtedly 
sound  advice,  although  if  3'ou  alwaj'S  take  it  you 
will  be  more  docile  and  patient  than  most  amateurs. 

The  reason  the  advice  is  good  is  that  the  printing  in 
direct  sunshine  is  very  apt  to  bo  harsh,  and  if  there 
are  any  slight  defects  in  the  glass,  or  there  is  dust 
or  any  impurity  on  the  back  of  the  negative,  it  will 
seriously  affect  the  print.  Diffused  light  will  give 
softer  prints  and  defects  will  be  less  apt  to  show.  The  4 
usual  way  of  avoiding  direct  sunlight  printing  is  to  put 

i 

i 


S 


MAKING  A PRINT 


87 


tissue  paper  or  a piece  of  ground-glass  over  the  face  of 
the  frame. 

Other  matters  in  which  care  is  necessary  are  in  ex- 
amining the  print.  This  should  never  be  done  in 
direct  sunlight,  since  you  may  always,  when  opening 
the  frame,  shade  it  by  your  body,  and  it  is  best  en- 
tirely to  avoid  touching  the  front  of  the  paper  with 
the  lingers,  or  scratching  the  negative  as  you  raise  the 
paper.  As  fast  as  prints  are  dark  enough,  which  in 
nearly  all  these  processes  means  quite  a little  darker 
than  they  are  finally  to  be,  they  may  be  placed  in  a 
box,  a table-drawer,  or  shut  between  the  pages  of  a 
book,  which  will  entirely  protect  them  until  you  are 
ready  for  the  next  step. 

In  speaking  especially  of  printing,  there  are  a num- 
ber of  methods  that  will  bo  mentioned  later,  but  here 
we  shall  take  always  the  very  simplest  and  most 
straightforward  methods  until  we  have  been  through 
oue  whole  process  from  exposure  to  finished  print. 

The  next  step  with  your  prints  is  to  tone  them  — 
that  is,  to  substitute  a pleasanter  and  an  enduring 
colour.  After  printing,  you  will.liave  a picture  from 
which  you  can  get  an  excellent  idea  of  the  success  of 
your  work,  but  it  is  still  somewhat  sensitive  to  light, 
and  would  of  course  gradually  turn  dark  all  over  un- 
less protected.  But  do  not  be  afraid,  if  your  paper  is 
fairly  well  protected  from  long  exposure  to  light, 
dampness,  and  so  on,  that  there  will  be  any  change 
until  you  are  ready  to  tone. 

The  steps  in  toning  are  these.  First,  to  wash  in 
water  made  slightly  salty  with  a little  table-salt,  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  as  much  as  you  can  of  the 
silver  compound  that  has  not  been  turned  dark  by  the 


88  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


light.  This  compound,  when  dissolved  in  the  water, 
makes  the  water  slightly  milk}%  and  therefore  so  long 
as  by  gently  rinsing  the  print  the  water  still  whitens, 
you  may  know  that  you  have  not  removed  all  the 
silver  compound  possible.  When  the  water  remains 
almost  clear,  which  will  be  after  a few  minutes’  wash- 
ing, you  are  ready  to  change  the  colour  of  the  print. 

This  is  done  by  taking  away  from  the  print  a 
portion  of  the  darkened  silver  and  supplying  in  its 
place  a darker  compound  made  from  gold.  Usually 
chloride  of  gold  is  used  in  a weak  solution,  as  the 
formula  at  the  back  of  the  book  will  show  you.  In 
this  solution  the  print  is  placed  and  kept  gently  mov- 
ing, so  that  any  little  particles  floating  about  will  not 
settle  in  one  place.  You  will  then  see  that  the  print 
will  gradually  change  in  hue,  losing  its  reddish  tone 
and  taking  on  a little  darker  tone,  approaching  nearer 
to  a purple-black  — the  usual  colour  of  a finished 
photograph  with  which  we  are  all  so  familiar. 

When  the  colour  is  right,  the  print  is  put  into  a 
hypo  solution  which  dissolves  out  still  more  of  the 
unchanged  silver  compound,  but  does  not  attack  the 
darkened  portions.  The  print  is  now  not  sensitive  to 
light,  but,  being  soaked  in  hypo,  has  to  be  washed 
just  as  the  plates  were  washed  after  developing,  and 
even  more  thoroughl}%  since  the  h}'po  in  this  case  has 
soaked  well  into  the  fibre  of  the  paper,  as  well  as  into 
the  coating. 

All  through  the  processes  of  washing,  toning,  and 
fixing  prints,  cleanliness  is,  if  possible,  more  important 
than  in  making  the  negative.  It  will  be  wise  to  handle 
the  prints  as  little  as  possible,  lifting  them  when  neces- 
sary by  the  corner  or  by  using  a glass  rod.  Then, 


All  artistic  picture  obtained  from  an  ordinary  city  scene.  The  photograph  was  made  during  the  snow-storm. 
In  the  original  tlie  eftect  of  falling  snow'  was  increased  by  using  a rough  surfaced  bromide  paper. 


MAKING  A PEINT 


89 


too,  they  must  be  dried,  and  for  this  purpose  many 
use  a specially  made  blotting-paper,  the  fibres  of  which 
do  not  come  off  on  the  prints.  Photographic  supply 
dealers  sell  “ blotter  books  ” in  which  leaves  of  blot- 
ting-paper alternate  with  leaves  of  oiled  paper.  The 
prints  are  laid  in  facing  the  oiled  paper  and  put  under 
gentle  pressure.  Before  puttingprints  between  blotters, 
you  should  mop  off  all  surface  wetness  with  an  old  soft 
handkerchief.  They  may  afterward  be-  pinned  up  by 
the  corners,  after  being  slightly  blotted  on  the  back;  but, 
whatever  you  do,  they  will,  in  drying,  curl  more  or  less, 
since  the  coating  on  them*  tends  to  contract  and  roll 
them  up  face  inward.  This,  however,  can  be  corrected 
afterward,  by  passing  a stiff  card  or  flat  paper-cutter 
over  the  back  of  the  print  with  a wiping  motion,  while 
holding  up  one  edge  with  the  other  hand.  The  curl- 
ing that  occurs  after  they  are  mounted  may  be  reme- 
died by  running  the  photograph  through  a cold  bur- 
nishing machine. 

If  your  prints  when  taken  from  the  washing  bath 
seem  particularly  soft,  tender  and  inclined  to  stick  to 
the  blotter,  let  them  dry  first  in  any  fashion  that  they 
will,  spread  out  in  any  convenient  place.  When  they 
are  dry,  dip  them  into  water  again  only  long  enough 
to  make  them  limp,  and  place  them  between  blotters ; 
this  time,  not  being  quite  so  saturated,  they  are  less 
likely  to  stick. 

Before  you  come  to  mounting,  however,  you  have 
an  excellent  chance  to  show  your  good  sense  and 
artistic  taste  in  the  great  art  of  trimming,  and  for  this 
purpose  there  is  nothing  better  as  a guide  than  two 
pieces  of  cardboard  cut  into  two  right  angles.  These 
two  pieces,  each  shaped  something  like  a carpenter’s  try- 


90  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


square,  can  be  slid  one  over  the  other  so  as  to  leave  an 
opening  between  them  of  any  rectangular  shape.  By 
placing  them  over  your  print,  and  trying  them  at 
different  places,  you  can  find  out  just  how  much  of 
the  print  is  best  saved.  Having  decided  this,  holding 
your  pasteboards  steady,  mark  lightly  with  a pencil 
on  the  print  where  it  is  to  be  cut,  or,  with  a pin  or 
needle  point  mark  the  four  corners.  With  the  four 
corners  marked  by  tiny  holes,  you  can  turn  the  print 
over,  rule  between  the  holes,  and  then  cut  out  the  print 
with  knife  or  scissors,  either  of  which  is  quite  as  good, 
carefully  used,  as  the  sharpened  wheel  sometimes  sold 
in  the  shops  for  the  purpose. 

The  question  of  mounting  your  print  comes  next, 
and  is  almost  endless  in  variety.  But  for  mounts  and 
so  on,  you  must  refer  to  the  dealers’  catalogues  and 
stocks.  It  will  be  better  for  you  to  use  either  the  pure 
photographic  pastes  sold  for  the  purpose,  or  the  dry 
mounting-tissue  which,  pressed  under  a hot  iron,  fixes 
the  print  firmly  and  keeps  it  from  curling.  If  you  use 
paste,  it  should  be  put  on  very  evenly  from  the  centre 
outward,  placing  your  print  face  downward  on  a news- 
paper. The  print  should  then  be  applied  to  the  card- 
board, middle  first,  paper  put  over  both,  and  pressure 
gently  applied  from  the  centre  outward,  making  sure 
that  the  extreme  edges  stick.  Then  wipe  the  edges 
clean  with  a damp  cloth.  Dry  the  whole  under  heavy 
pressure,  and  you  will  have  done  all  that  you  can  do 
unless  you  go  into  the  matter  of  burnishing  the  surface, 
or  giving  it  a glace  finish. 

After  the  print  is  mounted  there  is  no  way  of 
burnishing  it  except  with  a rotary  burnisher,  which  is 
rather  an  elaborate  machine  and  hardly  worth  the  ex- 


MAKING  A PRINT 


91 


pense.  The  glossy  surface  is  not  much  liked  at  present ; 
but  if  desired  it  can  easily  be  obtained  on  P.  0.  P. 
by  the  use  of  a “ ferrotype  plate,”  a thin  sheet  of  soft 
iron  coated  with  black  enamel,  sold  by  photographic 
dealers.  The  ferrotype  plate  is  prepared  by  putting 
on  it  a few  drops  of  benzine  in  which  a little  paraffine 
has  been  dissolved,  and  then  polishing  the  plate  off ; 
this  is  to  prevent  the  print  from  sticking.  The  print 
while  quite  wet  is  laid  on  the  plate  and  the  air  bubbles 
pressed  out  lightly  with  a blotter.  When  it  is  dry,  it 
will  easily  come  off,  showing  a high  surface.  A 
“ matt  ” surface  that  is  really  more  satisfactory  to  the 
eye  may  be  obtained  on  P.  O.  P.  by  using  a good 
piece  of  ground-glass  in  place  of  the  ferrotype 
plate. 

Besides  the  method  of  mounting  the  print  on  a card 
there  is  that  of  “tipping”  the  print  on  by  its  two 
upper  corners.  Of  course,  in  this  case  the  print  must 
be  made  to  lie  flat,  and  in  this  respect  platinum, 
gum  and  carbon  prints  (which  will  be  explained  in 
another  place)  have  an  advantage,  for  they  have  no 
tendency  to  curl.  But  the  method  is  good  for  all 
prints  in  that  it  allows  the  use  of  mounting  papers  in 
beautiful  shades,  which  may  be  had  from  dealers  in 
fancy  and  “ cover  ” papers.  These  are  made  to  be 
used  on  covers  of  booklets,  programs,  and  the  like. 
Any  obliging  dealer  will  furnish  a sample  book  of 
cover  papers  and  will  probably  sell  as  few  as  half  a 
dozen  sheets  of  whatever  you  select. 

The  developing  papers,  or  “ gaslight  papers,”  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  are  really  much  like  slow  plates 
in  their  action,  and  the  method  of  treatment  is  so 
similar  to  that  of  developing  plates  that  the  same 


92  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


principles  apply  to  it,  except  that  there  is  a difference 
in  the  emulsions  used.  As  to  the  printing,  it  has  the 
great  advantage  of  being  done  by  artificial  light,  the 
strength  of  which  can  be  perfectly  regulated,  so  that, 
having  learned  just  how  to  make  a print  of  a certain 
quality  by  regulating  the  light  and  the  time  and  dis- 
tance you  can  repeat  the  same  method  again  and 
again,  getting  uniform  prints. 

Of  course,  in  the  printing-out  papers  you  use  day- 
light, or  sunlight.  This  varies  in  strength,  and  con- 
sequently your  prints  are  not  so  certain  to  be  uniform. 
The  best  way  of  finding  out  how  to  print  a negative 
under  artificial  light  is  to  take  a sheet  of  paper,  such 
as  Velox  or  Cyko,  cut  it  into  a number  of  narrow 
strips,  perhaps  half  a dozen,  keeping  all  these  strips 
except  one  protected  from  the  light ; put  this  one  strip 
under  the  negative,  and  keeping  it  at  a known  distance 
from  your  light,  whether  it  be  candle,  lamp,  gas,  or 
electricity,  guess  as  near  as  you  can  at  the  right  ex- 
posure after  reading  the  directions  that  come  with  the 
paper.  Then  develop  that  tiny  strip.  If  it  is  right, 
make  your  exposures  at  the  same  distance  and  for  the 
same  length  of  time.  If  it  does  not  make  a good 
print,  take  a second  strip  and  try  a different  time  at 
the  same  distance,  and  so  on  until  you  have  a strip 
printed  to  suit  you. 

By  these  experiments  you  will  discover  the  best 
time  for  printing  each  particular  negative  at  a certain 
distance  from  a certain  light.  If  you  are  truly  sys- 
tematic, this  can  be  noted  down,  so  that  you  will 
always  know  how  to  print  that  particular  negative  ; for 
negatives  differ  in  their  printing  quality,  needing 
different  exposures  according  to  whether  they  are 


MAKING  A PRINT 


93 


"more  or  less  transparent  and  contain  more  or  less 
variations  in  their  lights  and  shades. 

The  Welsbach  gas  lamp  is  said  to  be  the  quickest  in 
its  printing  action  on  developing  papers,  and  with  a 
rightly  exposed  negative  the  print  is  made  in  ten  or 
fifteen  seconds,  but  some  dense  negatives  may  not 
give  good  prints  in  less  than  three  or  even  five 
minutes.  It  is  sometimes  well  to  print  from  such 
negatives  by  faint  daylight,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in 
daylight  printing  it  is  difficult  to  judge  exposure  of 
the  print.  A negative  which  by  artificial  light  yields 
a print  that  is  harsh  and  too  violent  in  its  contrasts 
will  give  a softer  print,  with  better  detail  in  the  shad- 
ows, by  daylight  exposure. 

A secret  worth  knowing,  if  you  are  ever  without  a 
printing-frame,  is  that  developing  papers  may  be  quite 
as  easily  printed  by  holding  the  negative  and  paper  in 
the  hand.  A piece  of  pasteboard  of  the  size  of  the 
plate  should  be  placed  back  of  the  paper,  and  an  old 
plate,  or  any  other  plate,  should  be  placed  back  of 
that.  If  gripped  firmly,  with  the  knuckle  of  the  fore- 
finger pressing  on  the  rear  plate,  there  is  no  danger 
of  the  print  shifting  its  position.  Strong  elastics  or 
metal  clips  may  be  used  to  hold  the  plates  to- 
gether if  one  does  not  want  to  hold  them  with  the 
hand. 

It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  in  the  developing 
paper  no  image  is  visible,  even  when  the  paper  is 
printed  correctly,  until  you  have  put  the  paper  into  the 
developer  and  waited  for  the  image  to  appear.  The 
manner  of  developing  these  papers  is  exactly  the  same 
in  principle  as  the  manner  of  developing  plates,  and  the 
processes  throughout  may  be  said  to  be  the  same  — 


94 


PlIOTOGKAl’UY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


that  is,  they  must  be  developed,  rinsed,  fixed  in  hypo, 
washed,  thoroughly  dried.  You  will  notice,  however, 
that  there  is  no  toning,  if  you  are  making  simply  a 
black  and  white  print. 

An  advantage  of  this  method  of  printing  is  the  fact 
that  you  can  buy  the  sensitive  paper  in  perhaps  half  a 
dozen  different  qualities,  thin  and  thick,  quick  and 
slow,  glossy  or  rough,  and  that  each  of  these  varieties 
is  of  great  use  in  securing  the  best  effect  from  partic- 
ular negatives.  Another  advantage  is  the  fact  that 
since  these  papers  are  printed  in  the  evening,  the  prints 
can  be  made  when  the  amateur  is  at  leisure. 

Although  the  process  is  generally  like  that  of 
developing  negatives,  there  is  a method  of  develop- 
ment for  these  papers  which  should  be  mentioned, 
since  it  is  a very  economical  and  easy  way  of  working 
and  tends  to  keep  your  solutions  clean.  This  is  what 
is  known  as  “ brush  development.”  After  you  have 
printed  the  paper,  it  is  placed  face  upward  upon  a 
glass  plate  lying  in  and  against  the  side  of  .a  tray. 
With  one  hand  you  hold  the  print  down  against  the 
glass,  touching  it  with  your  fingers  only  at  the  cor- 
ners, and  then  with  a wide  camel’s-hair  brush  made 
for  the  purpose,  or  a tuft  of  cotton,  the  developer  is 
gently  applied  to  the  face  of  the  print,  at  first  in  a few 
broad  sweeps  so  as  to  cover  it  all  evenly  and  quickly, 
and  then  to  and  fro  across  the  face,  keeping  it  evenly 
wet.  In  this  way  you  “ brush  out  ” the  image,  using 
only  enough  developer  to  keep  the  surface  wet,  letting 
the  surplus  solution  run  down  the  glass  plate  into  the 
tray.  Thus  for  each  new  print  you  use  fresh 
developer,  keeping  the  solution  clean.  Otherwise 
brush  development  proceeds  as  before.  To  a certain 


95 


MAKING  A PRINT 

extent  you  can  bring  out  with  the  brush  certain  parts 
of  your  print,  only  leaving  others  undeveloped ; but 
this  art  can  be  acquired  only  by  experiment,  and  much 
the  same  effects  can  be  attained  by  methods  of  print- 
ing. 


CHAPTER  IX 
WHAT  TO  PHOTOGRAPH 


— Choice  of  sabjec*  — The  e5ec*  of  coloar  — The 
rapoTGKoce  of  oooctkc  — The  eve  azid  the  camen  — Imagiaotioa 
aai  i*rt  — The  eye’s  wide  view  — ATiew-dnder  — Puaabilitiee of 
% small  camen  — An  insanee  pTen  — Soiciog  the  work  to  tlte 
camen  — Picsocial  Caccs  and  pictares  for  pleasure  — Portraitnre 
porakes  of  the  aircxal  and  the  ardsdc. 

There  has  beea  a great  deal  ef  ink  wasted  orer  the 
question  whether  photographr  is.  or  is  not,  an  art,  bat 
no  such  discussion  leads  to  an_v  practical  result.  So 
far  as  the  amateur  is  concerned,  he  must  treat  photog- 
raphj  as  an  art  in  order  to  derive  either  pleasure  or 
profit  from  it ; and  even  if  some  wise  professor  is  able 
to  prove  by  a series  of  perfect  arguments  that  photog- 
raphy is  not  entitled  to  be  thought  one  of  the  fine 
arts,  all  we  should  have  to  do  to  satisfy  him  is  to 
cease  to  use  the  word  “ art  ~ as  applied  to  photography 
and  content  ourselves  by  calling  it  “ photography.” 

In  other  words,  the  whole  thing  is  a mere  matter  of 
names  and  ways  of  expression.  It  is  undoubted  that 
photography  is  a means  of  producing  pictores,  and  that 
these  pictores  are  of  two  kinds  — good  and  bad.  Our 
purpose  is  to  make  good  pictures  whenever  we  can ; 
and  in  order  that  they  should  be  good,  the  first  thing 
to  resolve  upon  is  to  choose  such  subjects  that  photog- 
raphy is  able  to  make  them  into  good  pictures. 

At  the  very  beginning  we  most  never  forget  that, 
so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  we  are  making  a Had  and 
wAitd  negative.  The  charms  of  colour  may  afterward 

96 


K 


'5'3-i-r  ro  'TZi7r»>V5..^Lr!Z 
or  TmiHH  ~rtri  -ut  iiittei  a Toe  inuiii^nan-  lai:  ji  jJ. 

3&C3  £EKaC  l fdT  S:ilIfniTf*a3BC  pn»!5i«!5  a;: — P"-I  3B 
mixtsr  yt!ni:nr  auiinsninL  irg  iBCJtsrj  ^ i r^nf 

i».nv.f  mil  yrnyT  •I.uiaefnuiJiu.j  :nii  xrg: 

::iiTnr  ^ jeam  n ziiiv.r'vr  ic  "»Tac  "ii  gni.i:iTtf~»nn  _s 
jii'v  iaj  la^^irx,  la^ees  Trii  -ntm^gr^  3321  lau. 

yiiE^.  a»ir%t-  Ji  asrraux  jncaas^  ~n>^  iiuiTii4£n3Dii 

3 t&srv’Ert  ir*nTjftt  -H  iQ^F  u.Ltmrs  ~~t«tt  na*?Y  mii. 
▼miii.  laix  ie  vj  znn  ■*  itni»y  bbl  ▼ouc  * ▼ - uok 

hm  TOtisrsiiti*!  n Tinan  hut  ua^xer^  <n3«rt-v 

IT  ^lii  griTt^  uiuiar  — _a  lut^y  t ir'isL  TTiiriiTi^mmi*  — lir 
loi-^  I TTcar^  2 inmL  ji  i*a<?ir  laa  in«*t  ji  jh 

gntartTOA.  x ▼*ii  me  m ji  hit  -nn 

rie  lesr  -i:rrif  sa-  -frrrrir  j£  » ▼'jar  mmfH*  if  nai-y  imi 
■miz  ir«  intniCEit  IJ"  Tnrm-I  Tmiinir^  Jt  TnuTrurmimt 

j IT  xiii  inrar.^HTT  x 2 lenans  emUiTi  xi  '"emsn- 

5*3*  XLe  ifiUTmn?  xiax  iir^  TiaiTr  nkma. 

— riiL  J^I«T<y  mil  ime — Knf  -r^ltiry  -r-TI  'inw 
lUE  a:rs^  xiaa.  -p.xaHr  irrr**ai^  imr  uiia.  itynigy 
*¥~a.  xns  iTOCT.  nme  ?n;L.i  le  xi  xmr^ 

rHH3nJ.j  xie  -j£  nscurs  -r-imgnr.-f  rmi  xic 

2ct:»Mt”Tjii. 

-Li  31  XIH3-  iKTTitia.  51  iirinu?—  rjuiani. 

an  if  Uif  IC  H-  '«Mmi*»ntTi»*-mr  it 

▼Tac  aiiiT  un  Mmmifiei.  T 1 "zms  :iiri  m rnmnim- 
tiC  — j"  .LU  mil  iniTT.  — jiuac  -'^nesuier  xrar  -T"***^ 

2 JEatle  -IE  jptTtny  tmr  nni»  tt  nr"  ■ r?»r-  ■«!^iniir^iTiT»- 
mu.  rini»HgTraiia7~  ^ Tni^'rrm  :u  _urix:  ir  rafg:  ji  xis 
mcccasagit  is  x jas  mim  if  mm  ir  if  TZic 

xm  r**^CT-  •TTt?  isTSssr  x tuL  m a jxr  b 
3Minir  2 5nnrsT:e*i^  :uirairi  x Ttrrag-  nic  firtMcmi 
-a.  xus  m2  xiac  Hmiamr^  if  Jirir.  xie 

Mwni  if  .i^c  mfc-jxrtS-  las  T»mn  n HI  Txa.  "iie 


I 


98  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


result.  The  second  common  colour,  brown,  is  made  of 
all  three  primary  colours,  or,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a 
mixture  of  red  and  green.  Here,  again,  we  must  judge 
of  its  effect  in  the  photograph  by  a general  idea  of  the 
proportions  of  the  three  main  colours  a common  brown 
contains. 

You  will  not  often  need  to  think  of  these  things  in 
taking  outdoor  pictures,  but  when  you  come  to  con- 
sider the  effect  of  different  colours  in  costume,  you 
will  find  these  principles  a great  help  in  getting  good 
results. 

Even  more  important  than  the  question  of  colour  is 
the  question  of  contrast.  In  fact,  an  old  photographer 
has  declared  that  the  whole  secret  of  making  good 
pictures  by  means  of  the  camera  consists  in  being  sure 
to  secure  your  contrast  of  light  against  dark  and  dark 
against  light.  Whenever  you  are  thinking  of  mak- 
ing a photograph  of  any  scene  or  object,  it  is  well  to 
form  the  habit  of  examining  the  whole  subject  of 
your  photograph  in  order  to  see  whether  light  things 
are  brought  against  dark  backgrounds  and  dark  things 
against  light  backgrounds.  That  is,  of  course,  unless 
you  wish  certain  parts  not  to  stand  out  strongly.  In 
taking  a portrait  of  a person  in  a white  dress,  you 
would  usually  want  the  face,  which  is  the  important 
thing,  to  stand  out,  and  the  dress  to  be  less  notice- 
able; so  you  might  use  a light  background  behind 
the  dress. 

It  is  amazing,  in  examining  a number  of  snap-shots, 
to  see  how  many  pictures  are  spoiled  in  effect  by  the 
coming  of  things  of  much  the  same  tone  one  against 
the  other.  You  will  secure  many  almost  charming 
pictures  that  would  be  exactly  what  you  desire  except 


WHAT  TO  PHOTOGRAPH 


99 


for  some  unfortunate  carelessness  in  bringing  (for 
example)  the  face  of  your  principal  figure  against  a 
background  in  which  it  is  almost  lost,  or  in  losing  the 
outline  of  the  head  against  a background  too  like  the 
hair. 

And  the  remedying  of  this  defect  is  often  exceed- 
ingly easy.  It  may  mean  only  a moment’s  experi- 
menting in  moving  the  camera  a little  more,  up  or 
down,  right  or  left,  so  as  to  bring  nearer  and  more 
important  objects  against  backgrounds  of  the  right 
shade.  Here,  too,  the  colour  question  comes  in.  To 
give  a simple  example,  imagine  a young  girl  wearing 
a bunch  of  red  roses  on  the  front  of  her  bodice.  If 
the  dress  be  black,  the  contrast  of  colour  may  appear 
strong  and  artistic ; but  in  the  photograph  if  the  red 
happens  to  be  the  pure  red  shade  that  makes  little 
impression  on  the  plate,  you  will  lose  this  contrast 
almost  entirely. 

Unless  you  bear  this  principle  of  contrast  constantly 
in  mind,  it  is  not  a matter  that  will  be  suggested  to 
you  by  the  eye,  because  the  eye  sees  largely  as  the 
brain  directs  it,  while  the  camera  is  a mere  brainless 
machine.  AVhen  we  look  at  a scene,  a group,  or  a 
person,  what  we  see  with  the  eye  is  largely  governed 
by  our  interest  in  the  subject.  We  are  unconscious 
of  what  does  not  interest  us,  but  the  camera  is  just  as 
much  interested  in  an  ugly  background  as  in  the  most 
charming  person  who  stands  against  it,  in  the  gleam 
of  a brass  button  as  in  the  bright  eye  of  a belle. 

This  same  remark  applies  just  as  forcibly  to  the 
foreground.  The  eye  overlooks  many  trifling  ob- 
structions in  giving  its  whole  attention  to  the  main 
subject  of  the  picture ; but  the  camera  is  quite  as 


100  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


willing  to  take  the  picture  of  a dead  branch  that 
comes  in  front  of  a medieval  castle  as  it  is  to  receive 
the  impression  of  the  romantic  old  castle  itself. 

Ton  must  therefore  teach  your  eye  to  examine  the 
whole  scene  with  the  impartial,  matter-of-fact,  un- 
romantic  eye  of  the  camera  lens,  for  the  camera  will 
not  pay  any  attention  to  your  preferences  as  to  what 
it  should  take. 

A rather  poetic  and  yet  useful  way  of  putting  the 
suggestion  as  to  what  subjects  ought  to  be  chosen  will 
be  conveyed  by  saying  that  while  the  human  mind  is 
infinite,  the  camera  and  the  picture  that  comes  from 
it  are  finite.  This  means  that  the  picture  made  on 
the  retina  of  the  human  eye  is  not  thought  of  exactly 
as  it  is,  but  is  thought  of  in  connection  with  what 
we  are  imagining  about  it ; it  is  unlimited.  The 
pleasure  that  we  take  in  a scene  comes  not  alone  from 
what  we  see,  but  sometimes  even  more  from  what  we 
are  thinking  about  what  we  see.  When  the  same 
scene  is  taken  upon  a sensitive  plate  in  the  camera,  we 
get  onlv  what  was  seen  and  not  what  the  mind  of  the 
photographer  had  added  to  it.  It  may  well  be  that 
when  the  picture  is  shown  to  another  eye  than  his, 
the  mind  of  the  other  person  will  think  very 
differently  about  the  scene,  and  so  may  miss  the  very 
things  that  made  it  charming  to  the  photographer 
himself. 

In  one  thing  especially  is  this  true.  The  eye  at 
one  time  can  take  in  a very  wide  horizon,  and  every 
part  of  that  horizon,  even  if  it  be  not  distinctly  seen, 
has  its  effect  upon  the  mind  and  so  helps  to  decide  the 
effect  of  the  view.  Usually  the  camera  can  take  in 
but  a small  angle  of  the  horizon,  or,  if  it  takes  in  a 


^^TIAT  TO  PHOTOGR.APH 


101 


larger  angle,  this  must  be  at  such  a distance  that  the 
objects  included  are  so  reduced  in  size  as  to  lose  much 
of  their  character. 

Hence  it  is  that  in  considering  what  to  photograph 
we  must  try  so  far  as  possible  to  put  ourselves  in  the 
place  of  the  camera,  giving  our  attention  only  to 
what  appears  within  its  angle  of  view,  and  consider- 
ing all  things  that  are  within  this  view  as  equally 
important. 

An  excellent  way  to  teach  us  how  to  know  just 
what  the  camera  will  include  is  to  cut  out  of  a sheet 
of  paper  a small  square  opening,  perhaps  not  more 
than  half  an  inch  on  a side,  or,  better  yet,  a small  ob- 
long op>ening  of  the  general  proportion  of  the  plate 
used.  Holding  this  papor  at  such  a distance  from  the 
eye  that  it  will  include  as  near  as  possible  the  same 
view  that  is  shown  by  the  finder,  we  shall  be  able  to 
know  beforehand  how  much  of  a given  view  will  be 
included  upon  our  plate  in  the  picture  to  be  taken. 
By  moving  this  screen  in  different  directions  we  shall 
soon  find  that  there  are  a great  number  of  different 
pictures  to  be  taken  from  nearlv  the  same  point. 
After  a time  we  can  use  the  finder  of  the  camera  for 
the  same  purpose,  but  at  first  it  will  be  better  to  use 
the  screen  with  a hole  in  it  because  the  image  seen 
through  the  oponing  is  very  much  brighter  than  that 
reflected  in  the  finder,  and  is  much  easier  to  be 
studied.  There  are,  it  has  been  mentioned  already,  a 
great  number  of  finders  made. upon  this  principle  — 
an  oblong  oponing  serving  simply  as  a frame  to  show 
what  the  camera  includes;  and  these,  of  course,  offer 
the  same  advantages  as  the  pxapor  screen,  excepting 
only  the  fact  that  they  do  not  shut  out  surroundings. 


102  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Unless  you  use  some  such  device  you  will  be  sure  to 
make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  include  upon  a 
plate  a scene  that  would  be  too  much  even 
for  a plate  of  quadruple  the  size. 

For  example,  admiring  the  view  from  some  mountain 
top,  you  will  unsling  your  portable  camera  and  make 
an  exposure  with  some  idea  that  you  have  secured 
upon  your  plate  at  least  a faint  impression  of  the  wide 
expanse  before  you,  with  its  sense  of  distance  and 
space.  When  a print  is  made  from  such  a negative  it 
will  be  amazing  if  you  have  not  a most  commonjdace 
and  uninteresting  result.  If,  beforehand,  you  had 
used  the  paper  screen  and  reflected  that  you  could  not 
possibly  get  on  your  plate  more  than  the  little  section 
of  the  distance  visible  through  the  opening,  you  would 
have  saved  yourself  your  plate,  your  trouble  in  ex- 
posing, developing,  and  in  printing,  and  a sense  of  dis- 
appointment over  the  limitations  of  photography. 

This  does  not  mean  that  even  with  a tiny  camera  it 
is  not  possible  to  secure  distant  views  that  are  well 
worth  while.  Give  a skillful  photographer  even  one 
of  the  miniature  cameras  of  vest-pocket  dimensions, 
and  he  will  secure  for  you  results  that  for  artistic 
value  compare  favourably  with  those  of  twenty  times 
the  dimensions.  For  example,  there  was  a young  man 
amateur  who  took  a great  fancy  to  the  original  “ Pocket 
Kodak,”  the  small  oblong  box  camera  brought  out  a 
number  of  years  ago,  and  small  enough  to  be  held  in 
the  palm.  Using  this  little  box  upon  an  ocean  voy- 
age, he  brought  home  a number  of  beautiful  prints  that 
owe  their  value  almost  entirely  to  the  good  sense  and 
artistic  taste  he  had  used  in  making  the  exposures. 
The  prints  were  one  and  a half  by  two  inches  in  size. 


Ekkective  Photographs  Taken  With  Small  Cameras 


WIIAT  TO  PHOTOGRAPH 


103 


and  jet  by  making  sure  that  he  did  not  forget  what 
his  camera  could  and  could  not  do,  he  secured  beauti- 
ful pictures.  Of  course  many  of  them  were  vessels 
passed  on  the  voyage,  but  the  time  of  taking  each 
picture  was  chosen  exactly  right.  If  he  made  a snap- 
shot of  a passing  steamer,  the  picture  was  so  placed 
that  the  trailing  smoke,  the  passing  boat,  and  the 
lighting  of  the  waves,  made  up  a charming  composi- 
tion. Or,  if  there  was  a particularly  artistic  effect  of 
clouds  during  a sunset  or  a storm,  he  had  chosen  just 
the  right  section  of  sea  and  sky  that  made  a picture. 
Aboard  ship  he  had  been  careful  not  to  get  too  near 
his  subject,  and  had  thus  avoided  bad  proportions  — 
that  is,  the  proportions  which  were  not  such  as  the  eye 
recognizes  as  usual ; and  he  had  also  been  thoughtful 
in  placing  figures  against  the  right  background  or  in 
the  right  surroundings,  and  so  had  been  as  wise  in  his 
compositions  as  when  making  little  distant  views. 

Probably  if  this  same  man  had  owned  three  or  four 
cameras  of  different  sizes  he  would  never  have  become 
so  skillful  with  the  baby  camera  be  carried  ; but  prac- 
tice and  natural  good  taste  taught  him  to  use  the  lit- 
tle box  to  the  very  best  advantage. 

We  have  spared  a little  space  to  tell  of  his  success 
because  it  carries  in  it  the  secret  of  good  art,  or  good 
photography.  A good  workman  fits  his  work  to  the 
tools  he  uses,  not  attempting  to  execute  miniatures  on 
ivory  with  a house  painter’s  brush,  nor  to  paint  a 
board  fence  with  a fine  red-sable  pencil. 

Consequently  you  must  first  of  all  remember  to  fit 
the  work  you  are  about  to  do  to  your  camera  and  the 
size  of  its  picture  and  the  speed  of  its  lens,  to  your 
own  skill  in  handling  it,  and  to  the  purposes  of  your 


104  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


work.  The  meaning  of  this  last  phrase  is  to  remind 
you  that  there  is  more  than  one  reason  for  taking 
photographs.  AVe  deal  mainly  in  this  book  with  the 
pictorial  side  of  photography,  but  it  is  often  the  case 
that  a photograph  will  be  made  for  scientific  purposes, 
or  for  a record.  AVe  wish  to  remember  certain  facts, 
and  find  the  camera  a most  accurate  and  ready  means 
of  keeping  them  for  the  future.  Much  of  the  work 
that  is  done  by  tourists  in  foreign  lands  must  be  of 
this  character.  It  is  intended  to  be  shown  to  friends 
at  home  and  to  convey  to  them  certain  facts  we  wish 
them  to  know.  For  such  photography  our  standards 
must  always  be  a little  different  from  those  by  which 
we  go  when  making  pictures  for  artistic  reasons. 

It  may  be  that  much  of  the  dispute  that  has  taken 
place  about  photographs  and  their  artistic  value  has 
come  from  not  clearly  understanding  that  many  pho- 
tographs are  no  more  than  pictorial  facts,  instead  of 
being  pictures  created  for  mere  esthetic  pleasure. 
And  yet  the  distinction  is  one  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  young  photographer,  and  should  be 
borne  in  mind  when  he  is  choosing  his  subject  and 
posing  his  picture,  for  the  principles  governing  the  two 
kinds  of  work  are  widely  different.  In  the  one  case 
you  must  secure  your  facts,  whatever  else  you  sacri- 
fice ; and  you  cannot  therefore  pay  chief  attention  to 
mere  matters  of  composition  and  arrangement.  For 
the  artistic  picture  the  thing  to  think  about  is  the  im- 
pression to  be  made  upon  the  mind  of  the  spectator, 
and  the  question  of  mere  fact  is  quite  unimportant  in 
comparison. 

The  case  of  making  portraits  partakes,  strangely 
enough,  of  both  sorts  of  photography.  It  must  at  the 


WHAT  TO  PIIOTOGEAPH 


106 


same  time  be  a record  of  recognizable  facts  about  the 
person  photographed,  or  the  picture  must  be  a failure 
as  a portrait ; and  the  portrait  must  also  be  so  artistic 
as  to  make  the  right  impression,  or  it  will  be  no  more 
than  a sort  of  catalogue  of  facts  about  a human  being 
and  will  lose  all  personal  interest. 

This  all  sounds  rather  difficult,  but  unless  pho- 
tography was  difficult  in  these  very  ways  — unless  it 
gave  you  a chance  to  show  your  own  good  sense  and 
good  taste — it  would  have  no  charm  and  only  a very 
practical  value  without  artistic  pleasure. 


1 


CHAPTER  X 

OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY 

Dififerences  between  indoor  and  outdoor  work  — Light  and  distance  — 
Width  of  view  — Landscapes  — Views  — People  — Plant  life  — 
Animal  life  — The  seasons  — Cautions  about  each  season’s  work 
— Landscape  work  — How  to  look  at  a landscape  — Seeing  truly  — 
Artistic  composition  — Need  of  a principal  object  — Avoiding 
exact  divisions — Place  of  the  sky-line — Leading  the  eye  into  the 
picture  — An  outlet  — The  study  of  composition  — Right  lighting 
— Pointing  the  camera  toward  the  sun  — Making  a screen  — Tak- 
ing near  objects  — Effect  of  tipping  tbe  camera  — Wind  blowing 
blurs  branches  — Value  of  reflections  from  water  — Emphasizing 
character  — Taking  portraits  outdoors  — Position  of  the  eyes  — 
Direction  of  motion  important —Seizing  the  quiet  moment  — 
Nature  photography — Value  of  the  tripod. 

So  far  nearly  all  the  principles  of  which  we  have 
been  talking  apply  to  every  kind  of  work,  but  when 
we  speak  of  outdoor  photography  it  will  be  necessary 
to  divide  the  subject  somewhat  so  that  we  may  give 
more  definite  directions ; for  it  will  be  readily  ad- 
mitted that  so  broad  a phrase  as  “all  outdoors”  is 
rather  a wide  and  comprehensive  matter  to  talk  about. 
Yet  there  is  a difference  between  all  camera  work 
done  under  the  sky  from  that  done  under  a roof. 
There  is  a marked  decrease  in  light  just  so  soon  as  you 
enter  a house.  Outdoors,  light  rays  are  diffused  in 
all  directions,  to  be  everywhere  present,  ready  to  act 
upon  the  plate.  Consequently,  in  general,  and  except 
for  the  early  morning  or  later  evening  hours,  outdoor 
photography  is  a matter  of  comparatively  short  ex- 
posures, 


106 


OUTDOOR  RHOTOGRAPHY 


107 


It  has  also  for  the  most  part  to  deal  with  varying 
distances ; that  is  to  say,  the  distance  of  the  object 
taken  may  be  from  a very  few  feet  to  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  see.  Indoors,  on  the  contrary,  the  light  is  more 
concentrated  in  direction,  less  abundant,  making  longer 
exposures  usual,  and  the  distances  at  which  objects  are 
taken  are  greatly  limited.  These  differences  alto- 
gether bring  it  about  that  most  outdoor  exposures  are 
snap-shots,  or  very  short ; most  indoor  exposures  re- 
quire considerable  time. 

Another  difference  is  the  range  of  view.  Since,  as 
we  have  already  pointed  out,  the  angle  of  view  of  the 
camera  — that  is,  the  held  of  the  scene  it  can  take  in 
— grows  larger  the  further  the  objects  are  from  the 
camera,  it  follows  that  indoors  the  field  of  view  is  very 
narrow,  and  outdoors  it  may  be  exceedingly  wide. 

We  can  divide  the  subjects  for  outdoor  pictures  only 
very  generally  into  classes.  The  first  of  these  we  may 
call  “Landscape,”  including  in  the  term  views  the  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  show  aspects  of  nature,  large 
natural  objects,  or  scenes.  For  the  second  we  shall 
have  to  make  up  a name,  and  call  them  “ Views,” 
meaning  outdoor  pictures  in  which  the  main  interest 
consists  in  objects  not  very  far  from  the  camera,  cer- 
tainly not  more  than  a hundred  feet.  The  third  class 
may  be  generally  called  “ People,”  including  such 
views  as  owe  their  interest  to  persons,  or  human  life. 
In  addition  to  these  we  may  consider  the  photograph- 
ing of  animal  life  and  of  plant  life. 

Though  these  terms  do  not  by  any  means  cover  all 
possible  subjects,  yet  they  will  be  found  to  serve  as 
good  general  names  for  the  most  usual  classes  of  out- 
door work. 


108  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


But  before  taking  up  these  separately  something 
should  be  said  about  work  at  dilferent  seasons.  Tak- 
ing these  in  their  regular  order,  beginning  with  the 
spring,  it  must  be  remembered  that  though  the  liglit 
is  growing  stronger  every  day,  it  is  not  yet  nearly 
equal  to  the  light  at  midsummer,  and  allowance  for 
this  must  be  made  in  exposing.  The  great  charm  of 
spring  landscapes  lies  in  their  delicate  colouring  and  in 
what  the  budding  foliage  promises  to  the  mind. 
Both  of  these  features  are  commonly  not  to  be  ob- 
tained in  a photograph.  The  delicate  colouring,  un- 
less by  a happy  accident  of  contrast,  is  lost  in  a hazy 
shade,  and  the  promise,  is  one  wholly  of  the  human 
imagination,  the  sparse  foliage  (until  it  is  well  out,  at 
least),  being  rendered  by  the  camera  usually  as  a col- 
lection of  uninteresting  dots.  In  order  to  make  pic- 
tures that  shall  give  the  impression  of  spring,  much 
careful  study  will  be  necessary  and  such  early  vegeta- 
tion selected  as  is  by  contrast  made  very  evident  to 
the  eye. 

"When  we  come  to  summer,  the  conditions  for  photog- 
raphy are  at  their  best  so  far  as  the  light  is  concerned 
and  so  far  as  the  masses  of  foliage  help  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  picture.  But  there  are  times  of  day  when 
the  strong  light  from  near  the  zenith,  at  noon,  gives 
harsh  and  unpleasant  shadows,  owing  to  the  too 
strong  contrast  between  light  and  shade.  The  heavy 
shadows  cast  by  the  trees  in  summer  also  make  photog- 
raphy difficult  in  shady  places  and  exposure  must  be 
lengthened  to  compensate  for  bad  lighting.  In  places 
where  the  uninterrupted  glare  of  the  sun  lights  ever}'- 
thing  with  great  brilliancy,  summer  is  the  time  to 
beware  of  over  exposures.  This  is  especially  the  case 


OUTDOOR  PIIOTOfJRAPIIY 


109 


at  the  seashore  or  on  the  ocean,  where,  in  addition  to 
the  light  of  the  sky  is  the  light  reflected  back  from 
the  water-surface  in  all  directions.  This  also  must  be 
allowed  for  by  shortening  the  time  of  exposure,  or, 
more  easily  perhaps,  by  using  a smaller  stop  for  the 
lens  thus  making  less  exposure  without  changing  the 
speed  of  the  shutter.  There  are  innumerable  failures 
made  upon  the  seashore  every  year  by  amateur  photog- 
raphers who  do  not  realize  that  the  ocean  and  sand 
are  enormous  reflectors  turning  back  into  the  air  the 
vast  numbers  of  rays  of  light  that  on  land  are  absorbed 
by  the  vegetation  of  the  earth. 

In  autumn  the  American  photographer,  especially, 
needs  to  be  warned  against  trying  to  secure  by  means 
of  the  camera  the  exquisite  autumnal  colouring  that  can 
be  got  only  by  the  artist’s  eye  and  palette.  Yellow 
and  red  are  the  dominant  notes  in  this  gorgeous  dis- 
play of  nature,  and  they  are  not  good  photographic 
colours,  as  you  know.  Consequently,  where  the  eye 
sees  a sharp,  brilliant  and  striking  contrast,  the  photo- 
graphic plate  will  give  a dull  and  uninteresting  result. 

Nothing  has  yet  been  said  of  “ orthochromatic  ” 
photography  in  this  book,  but  since  that  is  a means  of 
holding  back  the  quicker-acting  light  so  that  the 
slower-coloured  light  may  have  time  to  do  its  work  on 
the  plate,  it  usually  means  a slower  exposure,  and  con- 
sequently must  in  most  cases  be  reserved  for  such  pic- 
tures as  will  admit  of  time-exposure. 

In  the  same  general  way  we  shall  say  of  winter  pho- 
tography that,  with  all  its  charm,  it  is  difficult.  The 
two  things  to  bear  in  mind  in  winter  are  the  weakness 
of  the  light,  owing  to  the  low  angle  of  the  course  of  the 
sun,  which  then  is  further  south  in  our  latitudes,  and, 


110  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


consequently,  the  fact  that  where  there  is  snow  in  a 
scene  the  exposure  should  be  adapted  rather  to  the 
shadows  than  to  the  bright  lights.  This  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  a good  general  rule  in  photography  to  look 
out  for  the  shadow-exposure  and  leave  the  lights  to 
take  care  of  themselves,  since  the  plate  in  a way  pro- 
tects itself  after  the  first  instant  that  light  has  acted  and 
does  not,  in  the  well-lighted  portions,  receive  so  much 
effect  afterward  as  in  those  that  are  dark. 

The  first  chemical  effect  of  the  light  on  the  surface 
makes  the  spot  where  the  lights  touch  less  sensitive, 
so  they  do  not  afterward  receive  the  same  action  in 
proportion  that  is  exerted  upon  the  shadows.  If  this 
be  borne  in  mind,  and  sufficient  exposure  be  given, 
winter  scenes  will  be  found  to  give  excellent  results 
for  the  reason  that  there  is  less  interference  of  de- 
tails, more  breadth  and  simplicity  in  the  views.  The 
coating  of  the  snow  changes  a rough  and  irregular 
ground  into  a more  uniform  surface.  Shadows  cast 
upon  it  are  more  sharply  cut,  and  the  absence  of  foli- 
age makes  broad  views  possible  while  the  often  cloudy 
skies  give  excellent  contrast  with  the  whitened  earth. 
So  much  for  the  four  seasons. 

In  regard  to  distant  landscapes,  the  photographer 
will  do  well  to  acquire  the  artist’s  habit  of  squinting 
the  eyes  to  get  the  general  view  — to  lose  sight  of  de- 
tails. In  this  way,  without  the  trouble  of  looking 
into  his  finder  or  using  the  paper  screen,  or  view- 
finder we  have  recommended,  one  may  at  a glance 
make  a rapid  estimate  of  the  value  of  different  views 
he  sees ; for  when  reduced  to  the  scale  necessary  to 
include  a distant  view  upon  a small  plate  a great  deal 
of  the  detail  seen  by  the  eye  is  necessarily  lost.  Trees 


OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY 


111 


become  masses,  buildings  do  not  show  their  smaller 
features,  and,  in  general,  we  see  only  the  broader 
effects.  Another  excellent  hint  is  contained  in  the 
advice  to  look  at  a scene  with  one  eye,  thereby  getting 
rid  of  the  stereoscopic  effect,  that  is,  the  effect  of  re- 
lief given  by  two-eyed  vision.  The  camera  gives  this 
flat  or  one-eyed  view,  having  the  same  lack  of  relief 
that  is  giv'cn  by  vision  with  a single  eye. 

As  to  the  natural  features  of  the  landscape,  it  is 
only  people  whose  eyes  have  been  trained  that  see 
them  truly.  It  is  well  known  among  artists  that  we 
mentally  exaggerate  mountains,  for  example,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  only  very  careful  draughts- 
men will  draw  a distant  range  of  mountains  truly ; 
the  temptation  to  the  human  fancy  is  to  make  them 
much  higher  than  they  really  are.  From  this  error 
the  camera  of  course  is  free;  and  when  it  gives  us  a 
true  picture  of  a distant  range  of  mountains  or  of  a 
single  peak  we  know  to  be  impressive,  we  are  often 
disappointed  to  see  how  it  is  reduced  by  the  camera  to 
a not  at  all  surprising  feature  of  the  landscape. 

As  to  the  making  up  of  a distant  picture,  the  selec- 
tion of  a good  composition,  of  course  this  is  so  vast  a 
subject  that  artists  spend  their  lives  in  studying  noth- 
ing else.  It  brings  in  the  whole  question  of  artistic 
composition.  Nevertheless,  a few  principles  are  so 
simple  and  so  well  understood  that  they  should  be 
borne  in  mind. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  what  is 
known  as  “ principality.”  This  means  the  necessity 
that  the  picture  should  have  in  it  at  least  one  main 
object  that  exceeds  all  others  in  interest.  In  making, 
for  example,  the  picture  of  a distant  horizon,  you  will 


112  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


obtain  nothing  interesting  if  one  part  of  the  horizon 
is  no  more  interesting  than  every  other.  Somewhere 
there  must  be  a point  that  attracts  the  eye,  even  if  it 
be  no  more  than  a bit  of  cloud,  a distant  vessel,  a 
single  tree,  or  an  abrupt  headland.  A second  princi- 
ple forbids  the  dividing  of  your  picture  surface  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  by  the  horizon  line.  As  to  this,  it 
can  be  said  only  that  such  a division  is  seldom  pleas- 
ant to  the  eye,  that  either  the  sky  or  land  portion  of 
the  picture  should  get  the  lion’s  share.  In  many  old 
Dutch  pictures,  for  example,  the  artists  have  made  the 
sky  and  its  clouds  the  most  important  part  of  their 
painting,  while  the  wide  and  flat  stretch  of  land  be- 
low, diversified  perhaps  by  a windmill  or  the  sail  of  a 
sloop  here  and  there,  does  little  more  than  give  one 
the  impression  of  distance. 

It  will  be  a good  lesson  to  photograph  the  same 
scene  from  the  same  point,  but  at  different  elevations ; 
so  as  to  make  a number  of  pictures  that  are  alike  ex- 
cept in  proportion  of  sky  they  include.  In  pictures  of 
the  sea,  especially,  this  question  of  the  sky-line  and  its 
place  on  the  plate  is  most  important.  In  pictures 
taken  on  land  it  will  be  found  most  valuable  to  in- 
clude, if  possible,  some  effect  that  leads  the  mind  of 
the  spectator  to  travel  into  your  picture.  This  may 
bo,  for  example,  a bit  of  road  or  a pathway  that  serves 
as  a means  of  measuring  the  extent  of  the  picture, 
giv’^es  some  idea  of  the  distance  included,  and  directs 
the  eye  from  the  foreground  gradually  to  the  distance. 

A stream  occasionally  catching  glimpses  of  light  by 
reflection  will  serve  the  same  purpose  of  giving  the 
spectator  the  unconscious  belief  that  it  is  possible  to  go 
into  the  picture.  Perhaps  equally  important  is  to  give 


OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY 


113 


the  mind  also  an  outlet  from  the  picture.  Landscape 
artists,  except  when  they  are  seeking  eccentric  effects, 
are  accustomed  wherever  it  is  possible,  to  give  at  least 
a small  portion  of  their  picture  to  a bit  of  distance,  or 
to  a spot  of  sky,  to  prevent  the  effect  of  being  shut  in 
among  the  nearer  objects  of  the  picture. 

As  we  talk  on  this  subject  we  are  constantly  com- 
pelled to  refer  to  the  practice  of  painters,  for  this  is 
really  their  art  and  one  which  has  been  studied  since 
the  beginning  of  landscape  art.  The  best  place  to 
learn  about  the  composition  of  landscapes  is  in  the 
great  picture-galleries  where  we  can  see  the  work  of 
capable  painters  and  can  pick  up  hints  as  to  the  meth- 
ods of  making  their  pictures  successful.  If  you  have 
the  ability  to  draw  at  all,  it  will  be  a most  valuable 
exercise  to  take  to  a picture-gallery  a small  pad  of 
paper,  or  a sketch-book,  and  on  this  make  little  outline 
studies  showing  the  composition  of  pictures  admired. 
These  studies  should  not  be  larger  than  a visiting- 
card,  for  they  are  not  meant  to  include  any  study  of 
detail  whatever,  but  only  to  guide  you  to  the  general 
principles  upon  which  artists  act  in  the  composition  of 
their  landscapes. 

If  you  are  wise  enough  to  take  advantage  of  this 
suggestion,  pay  especial  attention  in  each  case  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  light  of  the  pictures  comes. 
This  the  shadows  will  show  you.  Y’ou  will  soon 
discover  that  much  of  the  picture’s  value  is  due  to 
right  lighting,  and  you  will  begin  to  understand  why 
a scene  that  is  comparatively  uninteresting  at  midday 
may  be  full  of  charm  shortly  after  dawn  or  when  the 
sinking  sun  casts  longer  shadows  toward  the  east. 
Unfortunately,  some  of  the  most  delicate  lighting 


114  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOE  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


effects  are  not  the  best  for  photography,  since  in  order 
to  act  well  upon  the  plate  the  sun  must  be  some 
distance  above  the  horizon. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  say  a word  about  pictures 
taken  with  the  camera  pointed  more  or  less  toward 
the  sun.  Naturally  enough,  those  who  publish  in- 
structions for  amateurs  desire  to  make  their  picture- 
taking as  easy  as  possible,  and  they  almost  invariably 
direct  the  photographer  to  take  things  upon  which 
the  sun  falls,  and  not  to  point  the  camera  toward  the 
sun.  As  a general  rule,  this  is  well  enough,  but  like 
other  general  rules  in  art  it  is  to  be  ruthlessly  broken 
under  certain  circumstances.  It  is  true,  of  course, 
that  sun-lighted  objects  take  most  easily  in  the 
camera.  It  is  also  true  that  it  will  not  do  to  let  the 
blazing  sun  strike  through  the  lens  upon  the  plate. 
But  very  many  beautiful  effects  will  be  secured  by 
taking  pictures  in  which  the  light  comes  from  in 
front ; you  thereby  photograph  the  shadow  side  of 
objects  against  a lighter  background,  and  you  secure 
shadows  running  toward  the  spectator. 

In  order  to  take  these  pictures,  however,  the  lens 
must  be  protected  by  a hood,  so  that  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  will  not  enter  it.  This  hood  can  be  cut 
from  a piece  of  cardboard,  like  the  peak  of  a caj),  and 
secured  over  the  top  of  the  lens  or  a little  to  one  side, 
as  is  necessary  to  screen  it,  being  fastened  in  place  by 
a rubber  band.  So  protected,  you  may  safely  take 
pictures  toward  the  sun,  if  only  the  sun’s  rays  are 
kept  from  the  lens  itself.  You  may  even  shade  the 
lens  with  your  hand,  or  your  hat,  for  the  moment  of 
making  an  exposure. 

This  question  of  the  direction  of  light  becomes 


OUTDOOE  PIIOTOGEAPIIY 


115 


especially  important  so  soon  as  we  change  from  the 
taking  of  distant  landscape  to  the  photographing  of 
nearer  scenes,  in  which,  of  course,  the  interest  of  the 
picture  depends  mainly  upon  a few  principal  things  in 
the  foreground.  The  lighting  will  be  found  to  make 
all  the  difference  between  an  attractive  picture  and  a 
failure. 

A very  little  change  in  the  point  of  view  — holding 
the  camera  a foot  or  two  higher  or  lower,  more  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left  — will  give  an  entirely  different 
effect.  In  such  subjects  we  must  recall  to  mind  the 
importance  of  securing  contrast  by  choosing  a back- 
ground that  will  relieve  the  light  and  dark  sides  of  the 
principal  object.  If  you  are  taking  buildings,  monu- 
ments, or  other  structures  in  which  there  are  hori- 
zontal and  level  lines,  it  becomes  most  important  that 
the  camera  should  be  held  level,  since  tipping  it  in 
any  way  gives  you  a very  different  result  from  that 
the  eye  sees.  As  to  tipping  the  camera  up  or  down, 
the  effect  will  be  to  change  the  distance  of  the  upper 
and  lower  parts  of  the  object  from  the  lens  and  plate. 

Tipping  up  the  front  of  the  camera  has  the  same 
effect  upon  the  picture,  or  view,  that  would  be  caused 
if  you  could  view  it  from  a station  or  bit  of  ground 
tipped  in  the  same  way.  Also,  by  the  change  of 
perspective  it  causes  all  perpendicular  lines  to  seem 
to  come  together  as  they  recede.  The  tipping  of  the 
camera  will  make  your  vertical  lines  seem  to  come  to- 
gether toward  the  top,  if  the  camera  is  tipped  up,  or 
toward  the  ground  if  the  camera  is  tipped  down.  In 
either  way  you  will  get  an  unnatural  and  distorted 
view,  more  amusing  than  valuable. 

This  does  not  apply  with  so  much  force  to  natural 


116  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOURG  PEOPLE 


objects,  as  these  seldom  have  truly  vertical  lines  and 
consequently  a slight  distortion  of  them  does  not 
strike  the  eye  as  an  impossibility.  The  matter  of 
keeping  the  camera  level  sideways  is  of  much  less 
importance.  Even  if  your  view  is  a little  tilted  to 
right  or  left,  the  worst  elfect  produced  is  the  loss  of  a 
portion  of  it  when  you  come  to  trim  down  your  print 
so  as  to  make  the  lines  of  the  picture  square  with  the 
edges.  Consequently,  unless  you  are  photographing 
something  in  which  the  view  is  important  up  to  the 
very  edge  of  the  plate,  there  will  be  little  harm  done 
even  if  your  camera  is  tipped  a little  right  or  left. 

In  photographing  natural  objects  outdoors,  such 
as  trees  and  plants,  you  must  be  careful  to  remember 
the  effect  of  the  wind  in  blurring  moving  branches. 
For  near  objects  this  is  important ; and  you  will  have 
to  make  a very  quick  exposure,  or  else  select  a calm 
day,  if  you  wish  to  avoid  a woolly  appearance  in 
foliage. 

A most  valuable  help  in  making  little  natural  pic- 
tures will  be  found  if  you  are  able  to  include  in  the 
view  even  a small  bit  of  water.  A tiny  pond  some- 
times by  its  reflections  brings  the  light  of  the  sky  into 
dark  spots  and  so  gives  life  and  variety  to  your  photo- 
graph. When  the  object  is  to  bring  out  the  beauties 
of  rocky  formations,  or  such  natural  banks  as  the 
shores  of  streams  and  rivers,  it  will  be  found  most 
helpful  to  take  up  a position  from  which  you  bring  the 
outlines  of  your  foreground  sharply  against  the  sky  or 
against  brightly  lighted  fields  or  masses  of  foliage  so 
as  to  give  the  outline,  or  profile,  great  strength  by 
contrast. 

And  this  suggests  the  secret  of  making  successful 


OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY 


117 


pictures  of  natural  scenery  — which  is  to  decide  what 
is  the  character  of  the  scene  and  then  to  emphasize 
this  by  selecting  the  right  point  of  view,  the  right 
lighting,  and  suitable  position.  You  will  see  how  this 
applies  to  the  photographing  of  a rocky  ledge,  for 
example.  If  such  a ledge  be  photographed  from 
directly  in  front,  it  will  lose  its  character  of  rockiness 
and  angular  strength  unless  the  lighting  is  such  as  to 
throw  portions  of  it  into  deep  shadow  and  others  into 
high  light.  In  the  same  way  the  picture  of  a beach 
should  derive  its  interest  from  the  apparently  limitless 
expanse  of  shore  line  and  ought  to  be  so  taken  as  to 
conduct  the  eye  naturally  along  the  foreground  to  the 
distance.  Here  again  we  must  refer  you  to  the  suc- 
cessful work  of  painters,  who  embody  these  principles 
in  their  best  work. 

When  you  photograph  people  outdoors  you  will  be 
guided  by  your  purpose  in  taking  the  picture — that  is, 
whether  you  are  seeking  to  make  portraits,  to  secure 
incidents,  or  to  make  attractive  compositions.  In  the 
case  of  a group  taken  for  the  sake  of  the  portraits,  you 
will  find  it  almost  impossible  to  get  good  results  if  the 
group  is  too  near  the  camera.  As  the  figures  approach 
the  camera  a little  difference  in  distance  makes  a very 
great  difference  in  the  scale  governing  the  size  of  the 
figures  on  the  plate. 

As  a proof  of  this  let  us  take,  for  example,  a row  of 
persons  standing  in  a straight  line  at  about  ten  feet 
from  the  camera.  You  will  see  that  the  shortest  dis- 
tance between  the  camera  and  this  line  will  be  drawn 
from  the  lens  to  the  centre  of  it.  The  longest  distance 
will  be  drawn  from  the  lens  to  the  two  persons  at  the 
ends  of  the  line.  Consequently  the  people  nearest 


118  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


the  centre  will  be  shown  on  a larger  scale  in  the  pic- 
ture than  those  at  the  two  ends,  and  the  picture  will 
not  truly  represent  their  heights.  If,  on  the  contrar}', 
you  place  the  same  people  in  a semi-circular  line  all  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  lens,  they  will  be  truly 
represented  in  the  picture,  all  being  at  nearly  the 
same  distance  from  the  camera.  The  nearer  the 
whole  group  is  to  the  camera,  the  more  difference  is 
made  by  taking  the  portraits  at  different  distances. 
As  you  go  further  away  from  the  camera  the  differ- 
ence in  distance  from  the  lens  becomes  of  less  and  less 
importance. 

In  making  outdoor  portraits,  if  the  light  is  bright 
you  ought  to  have  little  difficulty  in  securing  the 
natural  expression  on  the  faces  of  the  people  you 
photograph.  You  have  only  to  watch  the  group  un- 
til they  have  lost  for  a moment  the  stiff  attitudes  they 
will  all  tr}”"  to  assume,  and  then  to  make  your  quick 
exposure  while  they  are  at  their  ease. 

A very  common  fault  is  carelessness  about  the  di- 
rection in  which  people  are  looking.  To  have  them 
gaze  fixedly  into  the  lens  is  bad  enough,  but  to  have 
them  look  far  off  to  one  side  is  still  worse,  since  the 
light  striking  upon  the  white  of  the  eyeball  usually 
gives  a ghastlj^  expression  to  the  face. 

When  it  is  a question  of  pictures  of  incident,  you 
will  find  it  makes  a great  difference  in  taking  moving 
pictures  whether  the  direction  of  motion  is  directly 
across  the  camera,  or  coming  toward  or  receding  from 
it.  During  the  time  of  exposure,  objects  that  move 
across  the  camera  of  course  displace  their  images  most 
upon  the  plate,  and  the  quicker  the  motion  the  more 
likely  are  the  images  to  be  blurred.  Hence  it  is  that 


OUTDOOR  PHOTOGRAPHY 


119 


in  order  to  take  pictures  of  moving  objects  the  point 
of  view  should  be  a little  in  front  or  a little  to  the 
rear  of  a moving  object,  rather  than  directly  across 
its  line  of  motion. 

You  will  also  secure  many  more  successes  if  you 
will  notice  that  in  all  such  motions  as  walking,  run- 
ning, jumping,  throwing,  and  so  forth,  there  are  certain 
moments  in  which  the  motion  is  at  its  least.  Thus,  in 
taking  a walking  figure,  if  you  catch  the  swing  of  the 
foot  at  either  end  of  its  motion,  you  will  be  likely  to 
get  a clear  picture  ; but  if  you  time  your  exposure  so 
that  the  moving  foot  is  swinging  past  the  other,  it  will 
be  almost  sure  to  be  blurred. 

Suppose,  again,  a ball  be  tossed  into  the  air.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  catch  an  image  of  it  at  just  the  mo- 
ment when  the  ascent  ceases  and  chailges  into  descent. 
But  when  the  ball  has  fallen  almost  to  the  ground,  its 
speed  is  so  great  that  it  is  beyond  the  capabilities  of 
any  except  the  quickest  lenses  and  shutters.  There- 
fore, before  taking  pictures  of  moving  objects  be  sure 
to  think  out  clearly  the  nature  of  the  motion  and  to 
select  that  part  of  it  which  is  slowest.  Fortunately 
this  will  give  you  the  effect  with  which  the  human 
eye  is  most  familiar,  for  it  is  one  which  the  eye  most 
frequently  catches  and  remembers.  The  human  eye 
is  far  slower  than  many  of  the  quickest  photographic 
slmtters,  and  so  it  is  quite  possible  for  you  with  a 
shutter  moving  at  no  greater  speed  than  the  fiftieth  of 
a second  to  obtain  pictures  that  to  the  eye  mean  very 
rapid  motion. 

These  principles  will  be  particularly  helpful  to  you 
when  you  are  making  portraits  of  children  and  babies. 
Though  their  motions  are  very  quick,  there  is  in  any 


120  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


occupation  nearly  always  some  instant  at  which  they 
can  be  caught  by  the  camera. 

When  we  come  to  the  photographing  of  animals,  in- 
sects, and  flowers,  we  come  to  a field  in  which  there 
is  room  for  all  manner  of  ingenuity,  but  we  must  bo 
guided  somewhat  by  what  has  been  said  about  the 
sort  of  picture  we  desire  to  secure.  If  our  object  is 
scientific,  and  we  wish  to  make  merely  a record  of  use- 
ful views,  we  must  keep  in  mind  exactly  what  those 
facts  are  and  arrange  our  picture  to  bring  them  out 
plainly.  But  if  the  purpose  is  artistic,  it  should  never 
be  forgotten  that  we  must  secure  such  views  as  the 
eye  is  likely  to  catch.  The  camera  must  be  placed  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  position  from  which  the  eye 
ordinarily  views  the  object.  It  is  far  better  in  such 
pictures  to  get  things  upon  a smaller  scale  rather  than 
from  unnatural  points  of  view. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  making  a picture 
of  a squirrel  in  a tree.  There  is  very  little  object  in  so 
tipping  the  camera  as  to  give  a view  of  a squirrel  upon 
a tree  that,  though  upright,  seems  in  the  picture  to 
lean  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  even  if  by  this 
we  can  get  the  animal  upon  a larger  scale. 

With  flowers  it  may  be  that  this  rule  need  not  be  so 
strictly  followed.  These  are  so  frequently  brought  in- 
doors and  arranged  decoratively  that  we  become  famil- 
iar with  them  from  all  points  of  view,  and  so  it  is  in- 
different from  what  point  they  are  taken  with  the 
camera.  In  illustration  of  the  ingenuity  shown  by 
some  workers  in  this  branch  of  photography  we  read 
that  in  order  to  secure  clear-cut  views  of  flowers,  a 
clever  photographer  used  light  backgrounds  of  tissue 
paper  of  any  desired  colour  which  could  be  stretched 


xvith  a Rausch  &*  I.onib-Zciss  Tcssar  Ic 


Instantaneous  Photography 


OUTDOOK  PHOTOGEAPHY 


121 


upon  a slight  frame  of  sticks  and  set  up  behind  the 
flower  he  wished  to  photograph,  so  as  to  give  him  a 
picture  of  the  entire  plant  without  interference  with 
other  growths.  By  changing  the  colour  of  this  little 
screen  he  could  be  sure  of  getting  good  contrast 
photographically  whatever  the  colour  of  the  natural 
flower. 

We  will,  in  closing,  make  a little  plea  for  the  tripod. 
Unless  the  light  and  season  are  such  that  you  may  be 
sure  of  taking  snap-shots  at  will,  be  sure  to  take  your 
tripod  with  you  whenever  you  go  out  with  the  camera. 
By  its  use  you  will  be  sure  of  being  able  to  make  a 
time  exposure  whenever  and  wherever  you  choose, 
and  will  thus  secure  pictures  otherwise  impossible. 
Merely  because  it  is  an  accident  that  so  often  happens, 
we  wish  to  warn  you  once  more  against  walking 
against  the  legs  of  the  spread  tripod.  While  you  are 
absorbed  in  arranging  your  camera,  or  in  studying 
your  view,  it  is  fatally  easy  to  forget  the  little  tripod 
legs  that  straddle  out  so  widely,  and  if  you  upset  your 
camera  you  will  be  lucky  indeed  to  escape  injuring  it. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PHOTOGRAPHY  INDOORS 

It  is  evident  at  once  that  the  chief  difference  be- 
tween outdoor  and  indoor  photography  is  a matter  of 
quantity  of  light,  or  rather  one  of  length  of  exposure. 
It  is  true,  of  course,  that  in  certain  very  brightly 
lighted  rooms  a shorter  exposure  may  be  given  than 
in  certain  dark  places  in  woods  or  between  cliffs,  and 
so  on,  outdoors.  But  even  when  the  indoor  light  is 
apparently  quite  as  strong,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
reflected  lights  which  are  so  generally  present  out-of- 
doors  are  lacking  indoors,  and  that  the  illumination  is 
therefore  less  even.  Especially  will  this  be  found 
true  in  the  taking  of  portraits.  We  are  more  used  to 
seeing  people  quiet  indoors,  and  so  are  more  familiar 
with  the  scheme  of  lighting.  It  is  only  when  we 
come  to  making  photographic  portraits  that  we  find 
how  crude  that  lighting  is,  and  how  strong  are  the  con- 
trasts between  the  lighted  and  the  shadowed  side  in- 
doors. 

There  is  also  a very  great  difference  between  the 
light  at  or  near  windows  and  doors  and  that  even  a 
very  few  feet  away  toward  the  centres  of  rooms. 
From  this  it  comes  that  the  best  general  rule  in  using 
the  camera  in  this  weaker  light  is  to  be  sure  not  to 
underestimate  the  right  exposure.  If  you  must  err, 
let  the  error  be  always  on  the  side  of  giving  the  full 
length  of  time  to  the  darker  shadows. 

122 


PHOTOGKAPHY  IXDOOIiS 


123 


An  experiment  easily  tried,  and  well  worth  trying 
for  the  information  it  gives,  is  to  expose  a piece  of 
ordinary  printing-out  paper  to  the  light  in  the  mid- 
dle of  a fairly  lighted  room  and  to  note  how  very 
slowly  its  tint  is  darkened.  Then,  on  even  a dull  day 
expose  the  same  kind  of  paper  outdoors,  and  you  will 
see  that  the  rate  of  darkening  is  very  much  more 
rapid. 

From  this  general  statement  you  may  draw  the 
necessary  rules  for  indoor  photography  in  ordinary 
houses,  for  of  course  we  are  not  here  considering  such 
lighting  as  the  professional  photographer  gets  in  a 
studio  especially  prepared  with  skylights  and  side- 
lights and  curtains.  Under  such  a big  sk}dight  the 
times  of  exposure  may  be  very  nearly  as  short  as  out- 
doors. But  in  our  own  homes  most  of  the  lighting  is 
from  windows  in  the  side  walls  that  seldom  give  the 
direct  light  of  the  sky,  and  the  colours  of  hangings, 
walls,  furniture,  and  so  on,  are  such  as  absorb  light 
rays  and  prevent  their  being  reflected  back  again. 

The  two  chief  principles  of  indoor  photograph}^ 
therefore,  are  to  give  enough  exposure  and  to  secure 
an  even  lighting.  The  first  is  a matter  of  judgment 
and  experience.  If  you  are  at  all  systematic  you  will 
by  a few  experiments  learn  about  the  right  number  of 
seconds  to  give  when  taking  photographs  in  certain 
rooms  of  your  house,  and  will  allow  a little  more  time 
whenever  you  are  further  from  the  source  of  light. 

In  some  of  the  circulars  and  hand-books,  particularly 
those  that  come  with  small  cameras,  you  are  directed 
to  use  for  indoor  pictures  a smaller  stop  than  that 
used  for  snap-shots  outdoors.  There  is  no  sensible 
reason  for  this  piece  of  advice,  unless  it  be  the  fact 


124  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


that  in  a long  exposure,  the  beginner  has  more  leeway, 
and  a few  seconds  more  or  less  will  not  spoil  his  nega- 
tive. The  large  diaphragm  f /8  is  the  natural  one  for 
portrait  photography,  and  an  even  larger  one  is  often 
desirable  ; for  the  shorter  the  exposure,  the  less  chance 
there  is  of  your  subject’s  moving,  or  losing  the  charm 
of  a fleeting  expression.  Besides,  the  sharp  detail 
produced  by  a small  stop  is  generally  objectionable  in 
a portrait.  Perhaps,  when  you  photograj)h  your 
dog  you  may  like  to  be  able  to  see  every  hair  distinct ; 
but  in  the  face  of  a person,  sharp  lines  and  little  de- 
fects are  things  to  be  made  inconspicuous,  for  the 
camera  records  many  things  which  one’s  friendly  eyes 
do  not  perceive.  Five  seconds  ought  to  suffice  you  for 
a portrait  exposure  ; rather  than  take  longer,  you  had 
better  secure  brighter  lighting.  In  a light  room  or 
sheltered  part  of  a piazza  you  may  be  able  to  get  the 
exposure  down  to  less  than  a second  ; in  which  case,  if 
you  have  a shutter  that  can  be  regulated,  you  will  find 
it  convenient  to  use  it  set  for  one  second  or  less. 

As  to  the  length  for  different  plates  and  films,  you 
may  secure  very  valuable  hints  in  the  directions  given 
by  the  manufacturers,  especially  those  issued  by  the 
Kodak  Company  or  by  companies  that  sell  exposure 
meters.  Kemernber,  however,  that  it  is  to  the  interest 
of  these  professionals  to  make  sure  that  the  amateur 
gives  plenty  of  time,  so  you  need  not  be  afraid  of  err- 
ing if  you  do  not  go  beyond  the  various  lengths  of 
exposure  they  set  down  for  rooms  variously  lighted 
and  variously  finished  in  colouring. 

Even  if  you  make  no  further  use  of  an  exposure 
meter  than  to  adopt  it  for  a set  of  trials  to  aid  your 
judgment,  the  small  amount  the  meter  costs  will  be 


PHOTOGRAPHY  INDOORS 


125 


very  wisel}'^  spent  in  teaching  you  to  judge  conditions 
of  light.  Even  those  cheapest  forms  consisting  of 
celluloid  cards,  or  little  disks  that  revolve  upon  a card, 
may  be  so  used  as  to  give  you  within  a very  short 
period  most  excellent  ideas  of  the  right  exposure  un- 
der various  circumstances,  at  different  times  of  day, 
and  different  conditions  of  the  weather.  From  them 
you  will  at  least  learn,  as  we  have  remarked  before,  to 
think  of  all  the  different  elements  that  go  to  make  up 
judgment  of  exposure ; and  without  some  such  mechan- 
ical aid  the  chances  are  very  much  against  your  guess- 
ing the  right  exposure  until  you  have  had  considera- 
ble experience  and  thereby  spoiled  much  material. 

As  to  the  second  principle,  that  of  securing  even 
lighting,  this  is  largely  a matter  of  common  sense  and 
home-made  contrivances.  For  example,  if  you  wish 
to  take  a portrait  indoors,  and  should  place  your  sitter 
close  to  a window  with  the  light  striking  upon  one 
side  of  the  face,  it  is  almost  inevitable  that  you  will 
get  a very  harsh  result,  full  of  contrast,  and  thereby 
make  a picture  that  will  strongly  accent  all  wrinkles, 
irregularities  of  the  face,  and  defects  of  complexion. 
And  yet,  even  with  the  sitter  in  this  position,  a mo- 
ment’s reflection  and  a little  ingenuity  will  show  you 
that  it  is  a very  simple  matter  to  arrange  white  cloth 
or  a large  sheet  of  paper  so  as  to  reflect  the  light  of 
the  window  upon  the  shaded  side  of  the  face,  and 
thus  greatly  reduce  the  excessive  contrast  in  lighting. 
This  is  often  recommended. 

A still  better  plan  is  to  place  your  sitter  facing,  or 
nearly  facing,  a window  while  you  take  the  picture 
from  near  the  window,  looking  at  the  fully  lighted  side. 
And  even  the  fact  that  the  sitter  holds  a book  or 


126  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


newspaper  as  if  reading  it,  will  make  all  the  difference 
between  a pleasing  and  an  unpleasing  portrait,  on  ac- 
count of  the  lights  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the 
paper  upon  the  sitter’s  face..  If  you  wish  to  get  an 
even  stronger  reflected  light,  it  is  often  possible  to  do 
it  by  setting  up  a mirror  in  the  right  position  to  re- 
flect, not  the  sunshine,  but  the  white  light,  where  it  is 
needed.  The  flash-light,  too,  may  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose  even  in  the  daytime. 

The  same  sort  of  home-made  contrivance  will  often 
serve  to  give  you  a plain  background  that  will  throw 
out  the  sitter’s  head  into  excellent  relief.  If  you  wish 
to  avoid  showing  the  detail  of  this  background,  you 
should  not  use  your  lens  with  a small  aperture,  since 
the  smaller  the  stop  opening  the  more  depth  of 
focus  there  will  be  — that  is  to  say,  the  more  things 
will  be  in  focus  at  the  same  time.  Another  way  of 
avoiding  detail  in  a background  is  to  keep  that  back- 
ground in  motion,  so  that  it  will  be  blurred  in  the 
photograph.  Thus,  behind  the  sitter’s  head  you  might 
have  some  one  to  hold  up  a plain  shawl  and  to  keep  it 
gently  moving  so  as  to  destroy  the  effect  of  its  texture. 

If  you  do  not  have  an  artificial  background,  remem- 
ber what  has  been  said  already  about  the  great  im- 
portance of  noticing  all  the  little  things  that  come  into 
your  picture,  in  order  to  make  sure  that  there  is  no 
small  detail  to  take  attention  from  the  portrait.  We 
have  seen,  as  a horrible  example,  a portrait  group,  one 
member  of  which,  a bald-headed  man,  happened  to  be 
so  posed  that  his  head  apparently  formed  part  of  a 
drawing  of  the  “ Sistine  Madonna  ” and  served  as  a 
convenient  resting-place  for  the  Child  in  his  mother’s 
arms.  The  one  who  took  the  photograph  was  so  used 


PHOTOGEAPHY  INDOOKS 


127 


to  the  presence  of  the  picture  on  the  wall  that  lie 
never  noticed  the  absurd  effect  until  it  was  brought 
out  clearly  by  the  photograph,  and  the  group  picture 
thereby  made  an  absurdity. 

Of  course  such  a blunder  as  this  ought  easily  to  be 
avoided.  One  you  will  be  less  apt  to  notice  is  the 
presence  of  little  reflections  of  light  from  the  glass  of 
pictures,  from  the  surface  of  polished  furniture,  or 
even  from  the  backs  of  books.  These  reflections, 
hardly  noticed  by  the  eye,  often  make  very  emphatic 
white  streaks  in  a photograph  and  require  much  treat- 
ment of  the  negative  or  print  to  remove  them.  These 
things  ought  of  course  to  be  noticed  in  the  finder  at 
the  time  of  taking  the  picture,  but  only  a very  minute 
examination  will  show  them  there,  because  of  the 
small  scale.  A very  slight  change  of  position  of  either 
camera  or  sitter  will  usually  enable  you  to  leave  out 
objects  that  interfere  with  the  simplicity  and  direct- 
ness of  the  portrait. 

Since  photography  is  with  the  amateur  so  often  a 
summer  amusement,  a warning  to  him  to  consider 
dark  piazzas  as  part  of  “ indoors  ” will  not  come  amiss. 
Usually  their  ceilings  are  low  and  shut  out  the  light 
of  the  sky,  so  as  to  make  a long  exposure  necessary. 
If  the  sunlight  strikes  upon  the  sitters  there  is  danger 
again  of  harsh  contrasts  and  crude  lighting  effects. 

Perhaps,  as  an  aid  to  the  young  photographer,  an 
account  of  an  actual  experience  in  judging  and  making 
an  exposure  may  be  helpful.  An  amateur  photog- 
rapher, sitting  upon  the  piazza  in  a country  place, 
noticed  that  his  daughter,  sprawled  upon  the  piazza 
floor,  had  taken  a rather  picturesque  attitude  assumed 
unconsciously  while  reading.  Being  a believer  in  keep- 


128  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


ing  a camera  at  hand,  he  warned  the  little  subject 
against  moving,  stepped  inside  the  door  and  brought 
out  his  magazine  camera  containing  twelve  4x5  plates. 

The  first  thing  was  to  see  that  the  camera  was  in 
order,  but  a glance  was  enough  to  make  sure  of  this. 
That  glance  showed  that  the  shutter  was  closed,  that 
the  speed  indicator  was  at  one-fiftieth  of  a second 
(instantaneous),  and  that  the  diaphragm,  or  stop,  was 
set  at  f/7.5.  It  was  not  necessary  to  see  that  the 
plates  were  in  position,  as  the  camera  had  been  newly 
loaded  and  the  index  set  at  No.  1.  Consequently  the 
only  adjustment  that  had  to  be  made  was  for  distance, 
and  the  indicator  was  set  at  ten  feet,  since  the  object 
was  to  include  not  only  the  child,  but  something  of  the 
background  and  the  surroundings,  which  were  pictur- 
esque. 

The  next  matter  was  to  determine  the  length  of  the 
exposure.  For  this  purpose  an  exposure  meter  was 
used,  being  the  one  fitted  into  the  cover  of  a little 
photographic  diary  issued  in  England.  This  diary 
contained  all  necessar}’’  directions,  tables,  and  so  forth, 
for  the  photographer,  and  was  used  to  find  out  the 
necessary  factors  that  go  to  make  a correct  exposure. 

The  first  thing  to  ascertain  was  the  nature  of  the 
view  to  be  taken.  This,  on  a well-lighted  piazza  almost 
directly  under  the  sky,  evidently  belonged  to  the 
class  called  “light  foreground.”  One  reason  for  this 
decision  was  the  fact  that  the  house  was  of  rough-cast 
painted  white,  and  gave  much  reflected  light.  The 
next  thing  to  be  sought  was  the  “ light  value.”  This, 
as  given  in  the  tables  printed,  was,  for  the  month  of 
June,  between  the  hours  of  9 A.  M.  and  3 P.  M.,  the 
fraction  yi.  This  fraction  referred  to  the  meter, 


pnoTor.RApnY  indoors 


129 


where  different  light  values  appeared  on  a little  wheel. 
The  third  question  was  that  of  the  plate  used.  From 
a list  of  different  plates  was  taken  the  figure  opposite 
the  Hammer  brand,  This  also  referred  to  a set  of 
numbers  on  the  meter. 

The  exposure  meter  was  a disk,  and  the  directions 
were  to  turn  this  disk  until  the  nature  of  the  scene 
(light  foreground)  came  below  the  light  value  figure 
()4).  This  turning  of  the  disk  moved,  of  course,  the 
whole  edge.  The  next  step  was  to  find  the  plate- 
number  {y^)  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  disk.  Opposite 
this  plate-number,  on  the  paper  back  of  the  disk,  were 
found,  printed  in  red  ink,  the  figures  — that  is,  sV  of 
a second  was  indicated  as  the  correct  exposure,  all  the 
things  mentioned  being  taken  into  account.  But  this 
correct  exposure  was  for  the  stop  f /8,  and  conse- 
quently for  f /7.5  the  exposure  might  have  been  a trifle 
shorter,  since  the  opening  was  larger.  It  was  not  neces- 
sary, however,  to  be  so  exact,  since  the  plate,  like  most 
modern  plates,  had  sufficient  latitude  to  allow  for  the 
exposure  being  not  quite  correct,  and  no  account  was 
taken  of  this  difference  by  the  photographer  because 
it  is  better  to  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of  giving  plenty 
of  time. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  shutter  happened  to  be  set 
at  the  right  stop,  and  so  the  photographer  had  nothing 
to  do  but  to  look  into  the  finder,  see  that  the  attitude 
of  the  subject  and  the  surroundings  were  what  he 
thought  picturesque,  and  then  to  press  the  bulb  that 
made  the  exposure. 

Immediately  after  maMng  the  exposure^  the  photog- 
rapher^ having  had  several  years'  experience^  changed 
the  plate.  That  is,  he  turned  the  handle  which  put 


130  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  exposed  plate  away,  and  brought  a fresh  one  into 
place.  This  to  avoid  the  danger  of  a double  exposure 
on  the  plate  already  used. 

If  your  subjects  are  interiors  without  figures,  or  in 
which  the  figures  are  subordinate,  the  main  things  to 
be  guarded  against  are  distorted  perspective  and 
halation.  Distorted  perspective  comes  from  so  taking 
a picture  that  the  lines  of  objects  are  not  such  as  the 
eye  usually  sees.  It  is  not  that  the  perspective  is 
untrue ; it  is  true  for  the  lens,  ordinarily.  But  if  we 
take  such  views  as  are  unfamiliar  to  the  human  eye, 
the  pictures  will  appear  absurd,  unfamiliar,  or  mon- 
strous. 

An  early  attempt  of  one  amateur  to  take  a photo- 
graph of  a small  child  at  the  breakfast  table,  resulted, 
because  of  his  inexperience,  in  the  picture  of  a very 
small  human  being  in  the  background  and  a gigantic 
coffee-pot  dominating  the  whole  photograph  in  the 
foreground.  No  doubt  the  human  eye  in  this  case 
would  really  have  seen  the  coffee-pot  on  the  colossal 
scale  shown  in  the  print ; but  since  the  mind  of  the 
observer  would  have  been  fixed  entirely  upon  the 
child,  the  coffee-pot  would  not  have  been  present  in 
his  mental  impression.  In  taking  interiors,  therefore, 
be  careful  to  remove  such  objects  of  furniture  as  come 
too  near  the  camera  and  so  seem  greatly  enlarged. 
Get  as  far  away  as  you  conveniently  can  from  the 
room  or  from  the  walls  that  show  in  the  picture,  so  as 
to  secure  ordinary  perspective  effects. 

We  shall  not  here  speak  of  the  means  of  lighting  up 
dark  corners  by  the  use  of  flash-lights  and  reflectors; 
but  we  should  say,  merely  as  a reminder,  that  it  will 
not  greatly  help  except  in  very  long  exposures  to  use 


PHOTOGRAPHY  INDOORS 


131 


gaslight  or  lamplight,  since  neither  is  able  to  act 
strongly  upon  the  photographic  plate. 

Halation  is  the  tendency  of  strongly  lighted  spaces 
or  objects  to  affect  the  photographic  plate  beyond 
their  true  outlines.  Thus,  in  a photograph  if  halation 
is  not  prevented  a brightly  lighted  window  will  seem 
to  be  surrounded  by  a little  halo  of  light,  and  the  same 
effect  will  be  produced  by  an  electric  light  or  by  any 
point  that  strongly  reflects  a beam  of  light.  This 
effect  is  produced  in  the  following  way : 

The  rays  of  light  go  through  the  photographic 
emulsion  on  the  plate,  then  through  the  glass  or  cellu- 
loid, and  are  somewhat  reflected  back  again  into  the 
emulsion.  You  will  see  by  a moment’s  thinking  that 
the  glass  plate  or  film  back  of  the  emulsion  having 


B 


£muJs)an 

Olass 


Etmclsion. 

Glass 

Backing 


Diagram  XIII 

behind  it  a dark  surface  is  really  a mirror,  and  as  such 
reflects  such  rays  of  light  as  pass  through  the  emulsion 
and  support.  Since  these  rays  are  reflected  back,  they 
follow  the  regular  rule  in  regard  to  such  reflected  ra}’s 
— that  is,  they  make  the  same  angle  in  striking  the 
reflecting  surface  and  in  being  reflected  from  it. 

The  diagram  shows  how  the  amount  of  space  affected 
by  halation  depends  upon  the  thickness  of  the  support 


132  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


of  the  emulsion  and  is  wider  as  this  is  thicker.  In 
order  to  prevent  halation  plates  are  often  “ backed  ” ; 
that  is,  they  are  painted  with  some  substance  or  pro- 
vided with  a backing  of  some  material  good  to  absorb 
light  rather  than  reflect  it. 

Very  often  halation  can  be  greatly  avoided  by 
making  two  exposures  in  taking  the  photograph  of  a 
single  room.  The  first  exposure  is  made  with  the 
windows  covered  — an  easy  matter  when  the  room 
has  white  window  shades.  When  sufficient  exposure 
has  been  given,  the  lens  is  closed  without  moving  the 
camera,  the  coverings  are  removed  from  the  windows, 
and  a very  short  exposure  is  given  so  as  to  show  the 
windows  uncovered.  If  it  is  desired  that  the  view  out- 
side the  window  shall  also  be  clear  and  distinct,  the  fo- 
cus may  be  shifted  to  the  proper  distance  before  the  sec- 
ond exposure.  This  should  be  done  with  care,  so  as  not 
to  move  the  camera,  and  by  means  of  the  focusing  scale 
only,  for  it  will  not  be  safe  to  remove  the  plate-holder. 
It  is  usuall}^  best  in  taking  interiors  to  select  a view 
that  will  make  the  danger  of  halation  smallest.  But 
by  the  use  of  specially  made  non-halation  plates,  or  by 
using  films,  which  being  thin  have  much  less  tendency 
to  halation,  it  is  not  diflBcult  to  avoid  the  spreading 
of  the  light  effect. 

In  taking  pictures  of  interiors  when  architectural 
features  are  important,  as  in  public  buildings,  it  is 
often  well  to  use  the  “ wide-angle  ” lenses  — lenses  so 
made  as  to  take  in  more  of  an  object  close  to  the  lens. 
Their  effect  really  is  to  show  the  object  as  it  would 
be  if  the  observer  were  farther  off  than  the  camera 
stands  — sometimes  as  if  he  were  at  a distance  that 
would  take  him  outside  of  the  building  altogether. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FROM  RULE  OF  THUMB  TO  KNOMXEDGE 

Eesume  — Rule  of  thumb  — What  can  be  clone  by  it — Knowledge  and 
its  advantages  — Steps  necessary  to  knowing  photography  — Op- 
tics— Mechanics  — Chemistry  — What  each  includes  for  the  pho- 
tographer— Laws  of  light  — Theory  of  the  camera  — The  emul- 
sion— The  developer  — The  fixing  solution  — Washing  — Toning 
— Different  processes  — The  old  and  the  new  — Value  of  the  his- 
tory of  photography  — “ Photographer  ” and  “ amateur.” 

So  far,  after  a general  talk  about  photography,  we 
have  tried  to  give  you  merely  a short  and  practical 
account  of  the  ways  of  picture-taking,  with  hints 
about  the  best  subjects  and  about  what  to  look  for  if 
you  wish  to  get  good  results.  There  has  been  no  dis- 
cussion as  to  why  certain  things  are  done,  and  no 
giving  of  reasons  for  the  taking  of  some  steps  rather 
than  others. 

Even  in  all  this  we  have  spoken  to  the  beginner, 
and  suggested  what  is  best  suited  to  him.  In  so  do- 
ing, however,  we  have  tried  to  tell  especially  those 
things  that  are  not  made  clear  in  the  printed  circulars 
of  directions,  and  to  give  the  warnings  that  we  should 
have  found  most  useful  whoU  taking  our  first  lessons 
in  the  art.  Now  we  are  convinced  that  the  time  to 
save  plates  is  before  the  exposure  is  made,  and  that 
the  most  economical  way  of  taking  pictures  is  ex- 
pressed in  old  Davy  Crockett’s  motto  — “ Be  sure 
you  ’re  right,  then  go  ahead ! ” But  in  order  to  be 
sure  one  is  right,  it  is  not  enough  to  go  by  directions 
given  by  others.  The  rule  of  thumb  is  only  good 

133 


134  PilOTOGRAPnY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


until  one  has  something  better.  Even  by  its  guidance 
a careful  photographer  can  do  much.  So  many  are 
the  books  and  pamphlets  and  circulars  that  there  is 
little  for  which  directions  cannot  be  found ; and  if 
these  are  closely  followed,  bad  failures  may  be  avoided. 
But  there  will  be  no  improvement,  no  deep  interest  in 
the  work,  no  delight  in  making  skill  take  the  place  of 
elaborate  devices,  n.one  of  the  pleasure  that  comes 
from  seeing  and  overcoming  difficulties. 

It  cannot  be  necessary  to  say  to  young  people  of  to- 
day that  there  is  more  education,  more  pleasure,  and 
more  benefit  generally  to  be  derived  from  a game  or 
amusement  requiring  skill  than  in  one  depending  on 
chance.  Photography  so  greatly  repays  knowledge 
and  skill  that  it  is  foolish  indeed  to  depend  upon  mere 
chance  for  your  results.  As  well  might  one  own  a 
horse,  and  never  learn  to  ride,  or  a rifle  without  learn- 
ing to  shoot,  as  to  pretend  to  be  master  of  a camera 
without  understanding  how  to  make  it  do  its  work 

Neither  should  the  young  photographer  be  content 
to  know  the  process  of  picture-making  only  in  part. 
He  need  not  know  every  way  by  which  prints  can  be 
produced,  but  he  should  be  able  to  make  exposures, 
finish  his  own  negatives,  print  from  them  satisfac- 
torily, and  understand,  m general,  the  “reasons  why  ” 
for  each  step  he  takes.  If  there  were  no  other  argu- 
ment for  this,  it  would  be  found  in  the  increased 
pleasure  brought  by  fuller  knowledge. 

For  example,  there  are  a few  main  principles  that 
will  give  a good  understanding  of  how  rays  of  light 
act  in  passing  through  the  air,  and  through  glass,  or 
through  other  substances,  or  in  being  reflected  from 
surfaces.  These  the  young  photographer  will  find  it 


FRO^I  RULE  OF  THUMB  TO  KNOWLEDGE  135 


helpful  to  know,  and  they  may  be  known  without 
delving  too  deep  into  the  science  of  optics. 

Knowing  these  principles,  the  subject  of  lenses  and 
their  making  will  to  a great  extent  become  clear.  He 
will  see  why  one  glass  or  a number  are  used ; he  will 
be  able  to  comprehend  the  making  of  compound  lenses, 
and  see  why  the  surfaces  take  certain  curves.  lie 
will  have  no  trouble  in  seeing  the_  use  of  the  dia- 
phragm. lie  will  find  out  what  causes  lens-makers  to 
charge  high  prices  for  a few  pieces  of  glass  cemented 
together  ; and  also  he  will  be  glad  to  learn  that  even 
with  a low-priced  lens  excellent  work  can  be  done 
within  its  own  rightful  held.  He  will  be  able  to 
understand  the  reference  books,  the  special  articles, 
that  are  all  the  time  coming  out  to  help  the  learner ; 
and  he  will  not  be  misled  by  absurd  and  impossible 
statements  made  by  irresponsible  dealers  or  ignorant 
salesmen.  Best  of  all,  he  will  get  the  best  results 
from  his  own  camera,  whatever  it  may  be. 

A knowledge  of  the  mechanical  side  of  photography 
also  has  its  great  value.  The  modern  camera  is  so 
made  that,  like  an  excellent  rifle,  it  requires  to  be 
understood  if  one  is  to  take  advantage  of  its  capabil- 
ities. It  is  humiliating  to  possess  one  of  these  ex- 
quisite machines,  fitted  with  every  needful  device, 
and  yet  to  know  little  more  than  the  names  of  its 
parts.  The  best  cameras  are  really  works  of  art, 
and  marvels  of  skill ; they  deserve  the  careful  study 
and  expert  use  of  which  they  are  capable.  Besides, 
every  bit  of  knowledge  one  gains  leads  to  more, 
and  widens  the  field  of  the  instrument’s  use,  whether 
as  a helper  or  as  a pastime,  as  an  instrument  of  pre- 
cision or  as  an  artistic  resource. 


13G  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


The  chemistry  of  the  subject  is  undoubtedly  very 
deep ; but  even  this  part  of  photography  has  its  more 
general  rules  which  can  be  readily  acquired,  and  used 
to  aid  one  in  consulting  books  whenever  more  exact 
information  is  needed.  For,  after  all,  photography  is 
a practical  matter,  and  one  can  pursue  each  part  of  it 
knowingly  without  needing  to  carry  the  whole  science 
in  one’s  head.  But  the  elements  must  be  known  so 
that  the  particular  directions  may  be  understood  and 
rightly  applied. 

He  who  would  get  the  best  results  from  photog- 
raphy must  therefore  know  at  least  in  a broad  way 
the  laws  of  light  — how  it  is  produced,  how  it  travels, 
of  what  different  kinds  it  consists,  what  effects  these 
kinds  have  upon  the  compounds  used  in  photography, 
how  the  light  is  affected  by  passing  through  lenses,  or 
by  being  reflected  by  differently  curved  surfaces,  or 
absorbed  by  others.  He  must  be  able  to  tell  what 
parts  of  the  camera  are  really  essential,  and  what 
parts  can  be  spared.  He  must  understand  how  to  ad- 
just the  camera  to  meet  various  conditions  of  work, 
and  how  to  remedy  those  little  defects  that  might 
interfere  with  its  best  working,  and  how  to  keep  it  in 
the  best  condition  for  use. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  be  able  to  manufacture  all 
one’s  own  plates  and  papers,  but  one  should  be  able 
to  make  an  intelligent  choice  after  having  tested 
different  makers’  goods,  and  to  find  out  which  are  the 
best  for  his  own  use,  whether  for  one  occasion  or 
another.  And  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the 
chemicals  used  in  developing  and  printing.  There  is 
a great  variety  of  them  to-day,  and  though  they  do 
not  differ  so  greatly  as  was  formerly  supposed,  yet 


FROM  RULE  OF  THUMB  TO  KNOWLEDGE  137 


there  are  uses  for  which  each  is  best  fitted,  and  some 
make  easy  results  that  are  difficult  if  others  be  used. 
Knowing  the  general  laws  by  which  they  act,  the 
right  chemicals  for  each  kind  of  work  may  be  chosen. 

The  securing  of  a good  negative  is  not  always  easy, 
and  no  one  can  tell  beforehand  just  at  what  step  of 
the  process  a difficulty  may  arise.  The  only  safe  way 
is  to  understand  what  is  taking  place,  so  that  the 
right  remedy  may  be  applied  when  the  hitch  occurs. 
If  you  know  how  to  do  everything  rightly,  you  will 
know  at  once  when  anything  goes  wrong,  and  so  can 
do  what  is  necessary  to  save  your  negative  or  your 
print.  Knowledge  also  prevents  much  unnecessary 
drudgery  in  following  rule-of-thumb  rules  without 
good  reason. 

It  is  worth  while  to  see  a professional  at  work  in 
order  to  see  with  what  ease,  rapidity  and  certainty  the 
different  processes  may  be  carried  out  w'hen  one  has  a 
clear  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  to  do  it. 
Washing  and  toning,  fixing  and  drying,  all  can  be 
done  cleverly  or  stupidly  ; and  whoever  has  seen  such 
things  rightly  and  intelligently  carried  through  will 
thereafter  be  unwilling  to  go  blindly  through  a half- 
understood  procedure. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  necessary  to  know  all  the 
different  ways  of  making  prints.  But  it  is  well  to 
study  out  those  that  you  like  best,  and  to  understand 
these  from  end  to  end  so  they  may  be  done  in  the 
best  way  and  will  produce  the  highest  results. 

The  interest  one  takes  in  photography  will  be 
enormously  increased  when  at  least  some  of  the  more 
common  processes  are  entirely  understood.  Then  the 
technical  magazines  will  take  on  new  interest,  the 


138  niOTOGEAPIIY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


’exhibitions  and  competitions  will  have  a new  mean- 
ing, and  will  become  helpful  in  your  own  w’ork.  You 
will  be  able  also  to  keep  up  with  the  progress  of  the 
art,  appi’eciating  new  discoveries  and  inventions,  and 
taking  advantage  of  \vhat  other  workers  are  doing. 

The  history  of  photography  is  not  a long  one.  The 
w’hole  story,  from  the  first  prints  made  upon  sensitive 
paper  to  the  improvements  of  our  own  time,  covers  lit- 
tle more  than  the  life  of  one  man.  The  growth  of  the 
art  and  science,  from  being  merely  a curiosity  and 
amusement  to  its  present  position  when  it  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  all  helpers  to  exact  knowledge,  covers 
a still  shorter  time.  To  read  the  whole  record,  or 
even  to  study  it  carefully,  does  not  demand  much  time 
or  a great  number  of  books,  and  yet  will  greatly  add 
to  one’s  appreciation  of  the  wonderful  achievements 
due  to  modern  makers  of  lenses,  of  cameras,  and  of 
modern  dry-plates. 

There  is  a debt  of  gratitude  and  a tribute  of  fairly 
w’on  fame  owed  to  the  men  who  have  created  pho- 
tography, and  have  shown  others  how  to  follow  in 
their  footsteps.  The  work  of  such  men  should  be 
familiar  to  us,  and  we  should  be  ashamed  to  forget 
them  while  we  remember  the  names  of  poets,  warriors, 
monarchs,  and  teachers  to  whom  possibly  is  due  no 
more  of  the  benefits  that  make  our  lives  pleasanter 
and  more  useful. 

If,  however,  one  cares  only  to  follow  blindly  the 
rules  given,  and  to  be  satisfied  with  chance  results,  he 
may  be  entitled  to  the  name  “ photographer,”  but  he 
has  no  rightful  claim  to  be  ranked  among  the  “ama- 
teurs ” — who  love  the  art  as  well  as  practice  it. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIR  QUALITIES 


The  pinhole  — Its  faults  and  their  correcting  — Difficulties  with  lenses 
— Spherical  aberration  — Chromatic  aberration  — Distortion  — 
Curvature  of  field  — Astigmatism  — Forms  of  lenses  — Simple 
lenses  — Rectilinear  lenses — The  anastigmats  — Covering  power 
— Rapidity  — Convertible  lenses  — Portrait  lens — The  telephoto 
lens  — Expensive  lenses  are  for  special  work. 

In  order  to  understand  fully  the  theory  of  the  pho- 
tographic lens,  one  must  go  to  the  special  books  on  the 
subject,  as  much  space  and  many  diagrams  are  neces- 
sary to  make  the  whole  matter  clear.  Here  we  shall 
try  to  give  the  amateur  some  acquaintance  with  the 
different  kinds  of  lenses,  the  meaning  of  the  names 
given  them,  the  uses  for  which  each  is  fitted,  and  their 
right  management. 

We  have  already  shown  that  a small  clear  opening 
— a pinhole  — will  take  pictures,  and  would  be  the 
best  of  lenses  except  that  it  has  certain  serious  faults. 
It  is,  when  made  carefully  in  thin  material,  really  bet- 
ter than  any  lens  in  several  respects : It  is  (within 

wide  limits)  always  in  focus ; it  never  distorts  its 
image ; it  takes  far  and  near  objects  with  equal  re- 
sults ; it  includes  an  angle  of  180°  — half  the  whole 
view;  covers  any  size  plate;  and  lights  all  parts  of 
the  plate  equally.  These  virtues  are  hard  to  equal 
in  the  best  lenses,  and  until  the  defects  are  explained 
one  is  inclined  to  say,  “ What  lens  can  be  better  than 
a mere  pinhole  ? ” 


139 


140  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


One  is  reminded  of  the  horse  which  had  but  two 
faults  — he  was  hard  to  catch,  and  no  good  when 
caught.  So  with  the  pinhole.  Its  two  defects  are 
lack  of  rapidity,  and  lack  of  definition.  That  is,  it 
admits  very  little  light,  and  does  not  give  a clear, 
sharp  image  on  the  plate.  It  is  a perfect  lens  where 
one  wants  only  a general  soft  picture,  and  is  in  no 
hurry.  But  nearly  every  photographer  requires  either 
good,  clear  definition,  or  quick  exposing ; and  conse- 
quently we  are  driven  to  use  lenses  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  in  a great  many  rays  of  light,  so  as  to  get  quick 
exposures,  and  for  the  purpose  of  causing  all  the  rays 
possible  to  come  to  the  same  focus,  so  as  to  get  clear, 
distinct  images. 

Thus  the  whole  purpose  of  the  lens-maker  is  to  keep 
the  advantages  of  the  pinhole  while  adding  rapidity 
and  sharpness. 

Hence  the  value  of  a lens  depends  on  the  number  of 
rays  it  can  bring  to  a true  sharp  image  — that  is,  on 
“ rapidity  ” and  “ definition.”  But  in  trying  to  get 
these  virtues,  we  meet  with  difficulties  brought  in  by 
the  use  of  the  glass  disk  or  disks.  These  difficulties 
are  described  as  follows  : 

Sjyherical  aberration.  To  make  lenses  their  curved 
surfaces  must  be  spherical,  so  that  they  may  be  ground 
by  tools  that  can  move  from  one  part  of  the  surface 
to  another  without  fitting  unevenly.  On  a sphere  all 
parts  of  the  surface  have  the  same  curve,  and  the  same 
tool  will  fit  any  part.  Now  the  truly  perfect  lens 
should  have  another  kind  of  curve  known  as  the 
parabola  or  parabolic ; but  this  is  so  difficult  to  make 
that  it  is  never  attempted,  especially  because  it  is 
easier  to  correct  the  fault  of  curvature  in  another  way. 


FhotograpU  by  Mr.  Ellwood  Crane  Courtesy  of  PHoio-Eia  Magazine 

A Pinhole  Photoc;rai>h 

Notice: — i.  Depth  of  focus,  or  equal  definition  of  near  and 
far  objects.  2.  Equal  definition  at  corners  and  at  centre. 
3.  Absence  of  distortion.  4.  Absence  of  halation  or  fogging, 
shown  in  the  detail  in  the  curtain. 


tVBOUT  LEXSES  AND  TUEIR  QUALITIES  141 


The  effect  of  spherical  aberration  is  to  make  the  rays 
nearer  the  edges  of  the  lens  come  to  a different  focus 
from  those  nearer  the  centre. 

Chromatic  aberration.  Of  this  we  have  already 
spoken.  When  the  rays  go  through  a lens  the  differ- 
ent colours  are  differently  bent  or  refracted,  and  so 
come  to  different  focuses,  being  separated  by  the  lens. 

Distortion.  This  means  the  changing  of  straight 
lines  in  the  object  to  curved  lines  in  the  image.  When 
a stop  or  diaphragm  is  used  in  front  of  a single  lens, 
it  cuts  off  certain  of  the  oblique  or  slanting  rays  com- 
ing from  the  margins  of  the  scene  photographed. 
These  rays  are  those  that  would  go  through  the  centre 
of  the  lens,  and  instead  of  them  the  diaphragm  lets 
through  the  slanting  rays  that  go  through  parts  of  the 
lens  further  from  the  centre.  These  are  not  bent  to 
the  same  point  as  the  others,  and  so  make  the  image 
at  a different  point  on  the  plate.  So  the  further  away 
these  points  strike  from  the  centre  of  the  lens  the  more 
they  are  bent. 


CL  b O 


Diagram  XIV 

Hence  if  we  photograph  a square  {a)  it  becomes  in 
the  image  barrel-shaped  {h)  — the  images  of  the  corner 
part  of  the  lines  being  brought  too  near  the  centre. 
If  the  diaphragm  be  put  behind  the  lens  (between  lens 
and  plate),  it  cuts  off  the  rays  that  pass  furthest  from 
the  centre,  letting  pass  the  more  central  rays,  which 


142  THOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


are  less  bent.  Consequently  the  curving  is  reversed, 
and  the  image  of  the  square  becomes  cushion-shaped 
(c).  Taking  a single  lens,  and  putting  a diaphragm 
.made  of  paper  before  it  and  behind  it,  successively, 
while  casting  an  image  of  a sharply  drawn  square, 
will  show  this  effect,  though  it  is  not  very  marked  in 
a small  picture,  and  is  of  less  importance  in  a smaller 
camera.  In  a double  lens,  with  the  diaphragm  be- 
tween lenses, 
the  distortion 
caused  at  the 
first  lens  is 
cured  b\’  that 
at  the  other, 
and  the  im- 
age comes 

DIAGBAM  XV  — CUBVATCRE  OF  FIELD  j-jglit 

Curvature  of  field.  The  ordinary  lens  brings  its 
image  to  a surface  that  is  not  really  flat  — like  the 
sensitive  plate  or  ground-glass  — but  curved,  or  saucer- 
shaped. (Diagram  XVIII.)  Tliat  is,  when  we  focus 
to  get  perfect  definition  at  the  middle  of  the  plate,  we 
find  the  marginal  parts  slightly  blurred.  If  we  focus 
for  these,  the  middle  is  blurred.  To  get  perfect  defi- 
nition, the  plate  or  ground-glass  would  have  to  be 
slightly  saucer-shaped,  which  though  possible  is  not 
convenient. 

Astigmatism.  Astigmatism  means  that  the  lens 
having  this  fault  will  not  focus  truly  horizontal  and 
perpendicular  lines  at  the  same  time.  Thus  in  trying 
to  get  a perfectly  sharp  image  of  a cross,  we  should 
have  to  make  the  horizontal  arm  sharp,  and  the  up- 
right one  blurred  or  vice  versa.  Or  else  we  may  so 


ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIK  QUALITIES  143 


focus  as  to  have  a compromise — neither  very  sharp  nor 
very  blurred  ; and  this  fault  is  worst  at  the  edges  of 
the  plate.  Where  correctness  throughout  the  whole 
plate  is  needed,  astigmatism  is  a serious  fault. 

There  are  other  errors  possible  in  lenses,  but  these 
are  the  ones  that  are  considered  in  dividing  lenses  into 
classes,  and  the  most  important  in  practice.  These 
errors  can  be  corrected  more  or  less,  and  in  the  best 
lenses  the  most  serious  are  corrected.  But  it  is  not 
possible  to  correct  all  errors  in  any  case,  because  all 
merits  cannot  exist  in  a single  lens  or  system  of 
lenses  ; the  merits  do  not  go  together.  An  example  of 
this  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  there  is  always  some  loss 
when  light  goes  through  even  the  cleanest  glass,  and 
yet  some  of  the  finest  lenses  require  eight  or  more 
disks  of  glass  to  give  them  their  good  qualities ; and 
that  to  get  rapidity  the  lens  should  have  a wide  open- 
ing, while  to  get  clear  definition  the  opening  must  be 
kept  small  in  comparison  with  the  lens.  So  in  mak- 
ing lenses  the  object  to  be  attained  is  borne  in  mind 
and  the  lens  made  to  suit  that  object. 

Here  (a,  b,  c,  d,  e and  f)  are  the  simple  forms  of 
lenses  from  which  all  the  combinations  are  made  up  : 


c d e 

Diagram  XVI 


These  may  be  understood  quickly  by  noticing  that 
either  side  may  be  flat  in  a lens  if  the  other  be  curved ; 


144  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOHKG  PEOPLE 


that  both  may  be  curved ; that  in  the  case  of  a curve 
it  may  be  concave  or  convex.  These  forms  all  bend 
rays  of  light ; and  ra}'s  coming  from  a convex  surface 
are  brought  together ; from  a concave  surface  are 
separated ; from  a flat  surface  they  come  unchanged. 

Hy  knowing  these  principles,  and  by  using  surfaces 
curved  more  or  less,  lens  makers  make  the  rays  go 
where  they  please.  But  it  is  also  true  that  different 
shapes  of  glass  bend  rays  differently,  and  by  putting 
together  lenses  of  varying  sorts  of  glass,  the  faults  of 
one  can  be  corrected  by  the  merits  of  another.  Let  us 
see  how  these  methods  are  used  in  making  lenses  use- 
ful in  photography. 

The  simplest  lens  is  the  bi-con  vex  (a),  which  makes 
an  image,  but  has  all  the  faults  possible  to  a lens, 
being  entirely  uncorrected.  It  is  practically  never 
used  alone.  The  ordinary  “ single  lens  ” is  really 
made  of  two  pieces  of  glass ; and  the  bi-con  vex  if  found 
in  a camera  will  be  supplied  with  a small  stop,  an 
opening  about  3V  of  its  focal  length  in  size.  With  this 
small  opening  only  the  very  middle  of  the  lens  is  used, 
where  the  errors  are  least.  The  only  advantages  of 
this  “single  non-achromatic ” are  the  fact  that  it  ab- 
sorbs little  light  and  is  not  apt  to  reflect  light  from  its 
curved  surfaces  — a defect  known  as  “ flare.”  It  is 
slow,  has  poor  definition,  and  is  generally  lacking  in 
all  good  qualities.  It  can  be  useful  only  in  very 
bright  light,  with  a small  stop,  and  where  defining 
power  and  correctness  of  lines  are  not  important. 

The  “ single  achromatic  ” or  “ meniscus  ” or  “ achro- 
matic meniscus  ” lenses  are  made  of  two  lenses 
cemented  together.  The  “ meniscus  ” lens  is  one  with 
a concave  surface  on  one  side,  and  a convex  on  the 


ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIR  QUALITIES  145 

other  (c).  By  grinding  these  surfaces  to  the  right 
curvatures,  or  by  putting  together  two  lenses  of  dif- 
ferent shape  (Diagram  XXI),  the  errors  of  chromatic 
and  spherical  aberration  are  lessened  or  corrected. 
Sometimes  a “double  meniscus,  non-achromatic ” lens 
is  made  (Diagram  XX)  with 
a diaphragm  midway  be- 
tween the  lenses;  but  this 
is  not  corrected  for  the 
chromatic  error,  and  con- 
sequently the  focus  of  its 
photographic  rays  is  not  the 
same  as  the  focus  of  the 
visual  rays,  or  the  image 
seen  on  the  ground-glass.  If 
put  into  a camera,  it  is  usually  one  that  focuses  en- 
tirely by  scale,  not  on  a ground-glass,  and  so  allows 
for  this  defect.  Yet  putting  this  lens  at  the  right  dis- 
tance does  not  make  it  act  like  an  achromatic  lens,  for 
the  less  active  rays,  though  not  in  focus,  act  some- 
what on  the  plate  to  blur  it. 

The  true  “ single  achromatic  lens,”  of  two  kinds  of 
glass,  is  corrected  somewhat  for  chromatic  and  spherical 
aberration,  and  when  used  with  a small  stop  is  capable 
of  good  work  on  bright  sunny  days,  or  on  quiet  sub- 
jects not  needing  great  quickness.  If  used  with  a wide 
opening,  these  lenses  show  distortion  and  some  astig- 
matism, Avhich  becomes  evident  when  straight  lines 
appear  in  the  picture.  In  purely  pictorial  work  the 
single  achromatic  lens  is  more  useful.  Its  small  aper- 
ture gives  depth  of  definition,  and  its  lack  of  sharp- 
ness is  often  an  advantage. 

The  amateur  must  not  think  that  the  “ perfect  lens  ” 


Diagram  XVII 


146  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


is  indispensable  for  good  work  in  photography.  For 
example,  the  smaller  kodak  cameras,  Brownies,  Num- 
ber 0,  No.  1 Folding  and  No*.  1 A Folding,  with  which 
so  many  delightful  pictures  are  taken  are  supplied 
with  meniscus  lenses,  and  meniscus  achromatic  lenses. 
An  expert  could  in  a moment  prove  their  limitations, 
but  many  of  their  pictures  can  hardly  be  improved 
upon  because  the  camera  has  been  used  under  the 
right  conditions. 


Rectilinear  Lens  Wide  Angle  Rectilinear 
Diagram  XVIII 


The  “ Rectilinear  ” lenses  (also  called  “ symmet- 
rical,” “ aplanatic,”  and  so  on)  are  made  up  of  two 
lenses  or  lens  combinations,  mounted  in  a tube  with  a 
diaphragm  between.  (Diagram  XXL) 

They  are  “ symmetrical  ” when  the  two  combina- 
tions are  alike  in  focus  and  make  up.  These  lenses 
are  usually  so  corrected  that  they  will  do  good  work 
with  an  opening  of  the  focus  or  more.  They  bring 
the  colour  rays  together,  have  little  spherical  aber- 
ration, and  little  distortion.  It  is  an  excellent  lens  for 
all  except  the  most  rapid  and  most  exactly  defined 
work,  provided  it  be  good  of  its  kind  — which  can 
only  be  known  by  actual  test.  The  “ Photo  Minia- 


ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIR  QUALITIES  147 


ture  ” on  lenses  (No.  79)  says  of  the  rectilinear : “ It 

is  still  quite  good  enough  for  80  per  cent,  of  the  work 
of  the  photographer,  provided  he  does  not  attempt 
high-speed  work,  three-colour,  or  fine  reproduction  or 
scientific  photography,”  and  again,  “For  all  ordinary 
purposes,  where  critical  definition  from  the  centre  to 
the  edges  of  the  plate  and  rapidity  are  not  essential, 
the  rectilinear  of  to-day  with  a rapidity  expressed  by 
an  aperture  of  f /8  is  as  good  a lens  as  the  amateur 
can  desire.” 

The  Anastigmat  lens  is  one  that  may  be  described  as 
the  highest  type  of  rectilinear  — one  that  carries  the 
corrections  to  the  furthest  extent  possible  for  the  pur- 
pose it  is  intended  to  serve.  To  discuss  all  the  different 
types  would  be  only  to  copy  the  learning  of  others 
from  various  books  on  the  subject.  The  anastigmat 
lenses  became  possible  when  the  new  kinds  of  glass, 
made  in  the  town  of  Jena,  Prussia,  led  to  new  experi- 
ments and  triumphs  in  lens-making.  Though  even 
with  the  older  varieties  of  glass  the  highest  classes  of 
lenses  can  now  bo  made,  it  was  the  Jena  glass  that 
first  caused  their  making,  and  showed  them  to  be 
possible. 

The  anastigmat  lenses,  because  of  their  superior 
corrections,  possess  many  advantages  over  the 
rectilinear.  First,  they  are  able  to  focus  sharply  at 
the  same  time  both  vertical  and  horizontal  lines. 
Second,  being  so  corrected,  they  can  be  used  with  a 
bigger  opening,  and  so  are  quicker  because  they  let  in 
more  light  to  the  plate.  Third,  they  have  a flatter 
field  — that  is,  bring  the  image  nearly  into  a single 
flat  surface,  and  so  can  be  used  with  clear  definition 
over  a larger  plate.  All  this  amounts  to  saying  that 


148  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  anastiginat  is  a better  corrected  lens  than  the 
rectilinear,  and  so  makes  a better,  clearer,  brighter 
image  on  the  photographic  plate. 

Since  the  different  anastigraats  vary  in  their  quality 
and  work,  it  is  not  possible  to  pick  out  particular  ones 
as  “ best  ” for  all  sorts  of  work.  The  qualities  that 
are  best  worth  seeking  are  thus  set  forth  in  the 
“ Photo  Miniature  ” on  lenses  (No.  79) : 

Covering  power.  Select  a lens  Avith  which  one  can 
focus  with  a large  opening,  and  yet  keep  the  same 
covering  power  if  the  opening  is  made  smaller. 
Select  that  giving  the  widest  angle  of  view. 

Rapidity.  Choose  the  lens  working  at  the  larger 
aperture  if  it  is  equally  good  otherwise. 

Convertible  lenses.  Choose  a lens  of  which  the 
separate  parts,  when  unscrewed,  can  be  used  as 
separate  lenses  of  different  focal  lengths,  if  the  whole 
lens  is  equally  good. 

As  to  these  matters,  in  buying  of  a dealer  of  good 
reputation,  you  may  seek  his  aid  and  advice.  But  be 
careful  to  bear  in  mind,  and  to  let  him  know,  the  pur- 
pose for  which  you  mean  to  use  the  lens.  For  general 
hand-camera  work,  such  as  most  amateurs  will  do, 
there  is  no  need  to  pay  for  a lens  of  the  greatest  possi- 
ble speed  and  perfection.  Such  are  made  for  scientific 
work,  reporters  on  race-tracks,  and  for  the  making  of 
process  plates  to  be  used  in  publications.  A reason- 
ably fast  lens  — one  working  sharply  and  clearly  at 
an  opening  of  f/8  — will  do  everything  except  the 
taking  of  objects  in  very  rapid  motion ; and  for  these 
there  will  be  needed  the  very  quickest  forms  of  shut- 
ters— such  as  the  focal  plane. 

So  far  as  picture-making  is  concerned,  the  really 


ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIR  QUALITIES  149 


“instantaneous  pictures”  are  seldom  very  pleasing, 
and  except  for  these  the  chief  benefit  of  using  the 
quicker  lens  is  in  the  ability  to  take  snap-shots  on 
grey  days.  Therefore  do  not  be  dissatisfied  even  if 
you  cannot  pay  from  $20  to  $150  or  more  for  a lens; 
excellent  work  is  done  daily  with  rectilinear  lenses 
costing  only  four  or  five  dollars. 

There  are  certain  special  lenses  made  for  particular 
classes  of  work,  and  with  these  the  young  photog- 
rapher should  have  some  acquaintance.  There  are 
the  Wide-Angle  lenses,  which  are  merely  lenses  of 
shorter  focus  (or  “focal  length”)  than  is  usually  em- 
ployed with  a plate  of  a given  size  in  a certain  camera. 
All  lenses  of  the  same  focus,  used  on  the  same  size  plate, 
give  the  same  amount  of  a given  view  — that  is,  they 
cover  the  same  angle  of  view.  A wide-angle  lens  is 
therefore  one  made  to  include  a wider  view  on  a given 
size  of  plate.  It  is  useful  to  enable  you  to  get  more 
of  a scene  upon  the  plate  your  camera  uses,  but  in 
order  to  widen  the  angle,  the  focus  of  the  lens  is  made 
short,  and  it  often  works  at  a smaller  aperture,  being 
therefore  slower.  The  small  aperture  is  necessary  in 
order  that  the  illumination  may  be  made  as  even  as 
possible,  for  wide-angle  lenses  cause  the  illumination 
to  decrease  rapidly  as  the  edge  of  the  plate  is  ap- 
proached ; and,  besides,  these  lenses  made  for  special, 
limited  use,  are  often  not  so  well  corrected  as  finer 
lenses,  and  must  be  used  with  a smaller  opening  in 
order  to  give  even  definition. 

The  Portrait  lens  is  one  so  made  as  to  give  clear 
definition  over  a limited  part  of  the  plate  and  to  be 
usable  at  a very  wide  opening,  giving  great  speed. 
The  same  class  of  work  can  be  done  with  the  best 


150  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


anastigmats,  which  besides  have  other  advantages.  If 
a soft,  not  too  defined  effect  is  sought,  it  can  be  had 
by  slightly  changing  the  focus  of  the  lens  that  will 
give  clear  definition,  so  even  on  this  ground  the  por- 
trait lens  possesses  no  necessary  advantage. 

The  Telephoto  lens  is  merely  an  additional  lens  (or 
set  of  lenses)  that  will  give  larger  images  of  distant 
objects.  The  size  of  an  image  depends  on  two  things 
— the  distance  from  the  camera,  and  the  focus  of  the 
lens  that  is  used.  The  nearer  you  bring  the  camera, 
the  bigger  is  the  image  ; the  longer  the  focus  of  your 
lens,  the  bigger  is  the  image,  other  conditions  being 
the  same.  The  telephoto  lens  is  merely  a means  of 
adding  to  the  lenses  on  your  camera  another  lens  (or 
more  lenses)  that  Avill  make  the  whole  combination 
act  with  a longer  focus,  and  thus  make  a larger  image 
on  the  plate.  Since  it  spreads  the  image  over  more 
space,  it  gives  an  image  less  bright,  and  so  must  have  a 
longer  exposure,  to  make  up  for  this.  Also,  as  will  be 
seen  when  we  speak  of  diaphragms,  the  addition  of 
the  telephoto  attachment  making  the  focus  of  the  lens 
longer  changes  the  value  of  the  number  of  your  stop. 

It  is  not  possible  in  one  chapter  to  do  more  than 
state  certain  general  principles  about  lenses.  The  sub- 
ject may  be  studied  more  closely  in  books  devoted 
especially  to  the  subject,  and  also  in  the  pamphlets 
and  catalogues  issued  by  lens-makers.  Remember,  in 
closing,  that  in  order  to  decide  upon  the  lens  you  need, 
you  must  sacrifice  those  qualities  which  are  least  im- 
portant to  secure  those  that  are  most  important  in  the 
work  you  are  doing.  You  must  choose  your  lens  to 
suit  your  camera,  your  plates,  the  subjects  photo- 
graphed, and  your  purse.  It  is  absurd  to  buy  a lens 


Taken  wilh  a Bausch  &■  Lomb-Zeiss  Prolar,  Scries  K//  a,  with  a High  Power  Tele-Photo  Attachment 
The  Magnifying  Power  of  a Tele-Photo  Lens 
The  small  picture  in  the  upper  corner  shows  the  same  scene  as  it  appears  in  a photograph  made 
with  the  same  lens  without  the  Tele- Photo  Attachment. 


ABOUT  LENSES  AND  THEIR  QUALITIES  151 


at  a great  price  when  you  can  do  your  work  with  one 
that  costs  a fraction  as  much.  Expensive  lenses  are 
meant  for  securing  the  greatest  possible  speed,  defini- 
tion, and  covering  power.  For  hand-camera  work  on 
small  plates  and  for  the  general  run  of  amateur  sub- 
jects, a lens  of  reasonable  cost  will  serve  every  purpose 
until  you  reach  a very  high  degree  of  skill. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  CAMERA  AND  ITS  ATTACHMENTS 

Value  of  the  tripod  — Various  attachments  of  the  camera  — Simplest 
camera  the  best — The  level — Distance-measures — The  swing- 
back — How  it  is  used — Swing-bed — Reversible  and  revolving 
backs  — Rising  and  falling  front — Cross-swing  — The  value  of  a 
long  bellows  — Extension  front  — Drop  front  — The  finder  — Ex- 
posing with  a cap  — The  virtues  of  a shutter  — The  focal-plane 
shutter — Its  merits  and  its  defects  — The  multi-speed  shutter, 
and  the  reason  for  its  action. 

We  shall  limit  this  big  subject  at  once  by  confining 
overselves  to  the  “ hand  camera,”  as  it  is  with  the  port- 
able camera  that  young  people  have  to  do ; but  it  must 
not  be  concluded  that  we  mean  to  say  nothing  of  the 
tripod.  On  the  contrary,  we  recommend  the  tripod 
should  be  used  whenever  possible,  which  means 
always  except  for  snap-shot  work.  And  in  order 
that  you  may  be  willing  to  carry  the  tripod  about,  be 
sure  to  get  one  that  is  compact,  small,  and  simple. 
The  metal  tripods  that  have  telescoping  legs  are  by 
far  the  best  except  that  they  are  not  (and  cannot  be) 
so  steady  as  the  wooden  ones ; but  care  in  their  use 
will  remedy  unsteadiness,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
you  will  dislike  the  trouble  of  setting  up  the  other  sort, 
and  so  will  leave  them  at  home. 

The  same  convenience  in  use  recommends  the  box 
camera,  as  we  have  already  said.  It  is  ready  always, 
and  attracts  less  attention  from  onlookers.  But  the 
folding  cameras  are  small,  light,  and  will  probably  be 

152 


THE  CAMERA  AXD  ITS  ATTACH:\IENTS  153 


carried  oftener,  and  you  should  get  into  the  habit  of 
having  your  camera  at  hand. 

But  whichever  sort  of  camera  you  choose,  there  are 
important  things  to  know  about  its  equipment  and  the 
uses  of  its  important  parts.  These  are  divided  mainly 
into  attachments  relating  to  the  position  of  the  camera, 
the  placing  of  the  plate,  the  moving  of  the  lens,  seeing 
the  image,  the  regulation  of  the  exposure,  the  changing 
of  the  plates.  At  least,  these  are  the  most  essential. 

Under  one  of  these  headings  come  all  ordinary 
devices  that  have  to  do  with  the  exposure  of  photo- 
graphic plates  in  the  camera.  W e cannot  describe  them 
all,  but  mean  to  give  the  chief  kinds,  and  to  explain 
the  principles  upon  which  they  act.  Knowing  these 
principles  the  young  photographer  will  learn  how  to 
use  his  own  camera,  and  will  understand  the  action  of 
other  cameras,  and  their  advantages  for  special  kinds 
of  work.  Still,  though  it  is  well  to  understand  com- 
plicated apparatus,  for  regular  use  we  are  told  by  the 
most  experienced  photographers  to  choose  the  simplest 
camera  that  will  do  good  work  of  the  sort  we  want. 

If  your  attention  is  given  to  making  all  sorts  of 
adjustments  of  the  camera  parts,  you  will  not  give 
your  main  thought  to  what  is  most  important  — the 
subject  you  are  taking,  the  value  of  the  light,  the 
length  of  exposure. 

To  begin  with  the  tripod,  the  amateur  should  choose 
one  that  is  firm  when  set  up,  and  light  to  carry.  The 
metal  tripods  are  most  portable,  the  wooden  ones  firmer. 
When  putting  the  camera  on  the  top,  screw  it  fast. 
If  it  rocks  or  turns  when  you  make  the  exposure  your 
plate  is  ruined,  and  it  will  rock  or  turn  unless  it  be 
screwed  fast.  There  are  adjustable  heads  that  allow 


154  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  camera  to  be  movable,  but  you  will  want  your 
camera  level  except  for  special  and  peculiar  work, 
and  the  plain  tripod  is  therefore  most  useful. 

In  tripod  work,  that  is,  for  time-exposures,  you  may 
find  use  for  the  level.  The  best  form  is  the  single 
level,  with  a circular  box.  The  level  is  only  useful  in 
work  that  must  be  very  accurate,  such  as  architectural 
pictures ; and  for  this  work,  you  will  have  plenty  of 
time  to  see  that  the  bubble  is  in  just  the  right  place. 
In  hand-camera  work,  the  picture,  if  slightly  crooked 
on  the  plate  can  be  corrected  by  trimming  the  print 
true  to  the  picture  lines,  and  in  such  work  the  level  is 
almost  useless,  merely  taking  your  attention  from 
more  important  matters. 

The  same  criticism  may  be  made  on  the  little 
plumb-line  attachment  for  levelling,  and  on  the  distance- 
measures  and  so  on.  They  are  seldom  useful,  and  often 
distracting.  You  will  soon  learn  to  judge  distances 
fairly,  and  also  will  learn  to  make  your  camera  level 
and  straight  by  the  eye  alone.  The  real  essential  is  a 
firm  tripod  and  care  in  placing  the  canlera. 

The  attachments  meant  to  move  the  plate,  to  change 
its  relation  to  the  lens,  are  the  swing-back  and  the 
reversible  or  revolving  back.  The  swing-back  allows 
the  plate  to  be  tilted  or  turned  on  its  centre  so  as  to 
bring  one  edge  nearer  the  lens  than  another.  This  of 
course  changes  the  focussing  of  part  of  the  subject. 
Suppose,  for  example,  you  are  making  a portrait  of  a 
man  seated.  If  you  bring  the  camera  near  him  to  get  a 
large  image,  you  may  find  that  his  feet  are  apparently 
magnified,  and  look  out  of  proportion.  By  using  the 
swing-back,  you  may  bring  the  upper  part  of  your 
plate  nearer  to  the  lens,  thus  getting  a smaller  image 


THE  CAMERA  AND  ITS  ATTACHMENTS  155 


of  the  lower  part  of  your  subject.  Trying  the  experi- 
ment with  the  ground-glass,  you  will  see  how.  this  may 
be  done. 

In  the  same  way,  you  may  better  the  appearance  of  a 
landscape  subject  at  times  by  changing  the  focus  of 
part  of  the  plate. 

Another  use  of  the  swing-back  is  to  make  plate  and 
subject  parallel  even  when  the  camera  has  been 
slightly  tipped  up  or  down  to  take  in  a different  part 
of  a subject.  Unless  plate  and  subject  are  kept 
parallel,  the  focussing  is  changed  on  different  parts  of 
the  plate  — as  we  have  just  shoAvn.  So  — unless  we 
mean  to  make  this  change — whenever  the  camera  is 
pointed  up  or  down,  the  plate  must  be  brought 
parallel  with  the  subject  by  means  of  the  swing- 
back.  Ordinarily  the  tipping  will  be  very  slight,  and 
the  swing-back  will  be  used  only  to  keep  the  straight 
lines  of  buildings,  pillars,  and  so  on  from  being  made 
to  look  out  of  perspective. 

The  same  effect  can  be  produced  by  means  of  what 
is  known  as  a “swing-bed.”  In  this  arrangement  the 
lens  is  tipped  by  raising  or  lowering  the  part  of  the 
camera  on  which  it  is  supported. 

Besides  being  able  to  tip  the  plate  on  its  centre,  we 
can  change  its  position  by  means  of  the  attachments 
known  as  “ reversible  ” or  “ revolving  ” backs.  The 
“ reversible  back  ” can  be  turned  so  as  to  bring  the 
plate  either  long  way  or  short  way  upward.  The  “ re- 
volving back  ” may  be  put  in  any  position  to  suit  the 
subject  taken.  Combined  with  a swing-back,  the  re- 
versible back  allows  almost  any  part  of  the  plate,  except 
the  exact  centre,  to  be  slightly  changed  in  focus.  But 
these  adjustments  will  not  be  often  used  by  the 


156  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


amateur,  and  the  want  of  them  is  not  a defect  in  a 
camera  although  they  are  convenient  at  times. 

More  important  is  the  “ rising  and  falling  front,” 
and  the  “ cross-swing.”  These  are  methods  of  allow- 
ing the  lens  to  be  moved  up  or  down,  right  or  left, 
without  moving  the  part  that  holds  the  plate.  The 
lens-board  is  held  between  two  uprights  so  it  may  bo 
raised  or  lowered,  by  loosening  a screw.  The  effect  is 
to  make  the  lens  take  a higher  or  lower  view  of  the 
subject.  Thus,  if  the  lens  be  raised,  it  will  take  in 
more  of  a tall  building;  if  it  be  lowered,  it  will 
include  more  foreground.  The  cross-swing  allows  the 
lens  to  be  moved  sideways  — viewing  more  of  one  side 
or  the  other.  Of  course,  if  the  camera  be  turned  on 
its  side  (as  so  many  cameras  may  be)  these  attach- 
ments exchange  offices. 

If  your  camera  has  these  attachments,  include  them 
in  your  “ camera  drill,”  using  the  ground-glass  to  see 
how  much  the  view  is  affected  by  each  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  lens  out  of  its  usual  place.  Though  you 
may  not  often  use  these  attachments,  now  and  then 
they  become  important,  and  will  help  to  get  a good 
picture  otherwise  impossible. 

The  other  way  of  moving  your  lens  — to  or  from 
the  plate  — is  of  vital  importance  unless  you  are 
using  the  simplest  “ fixed-focus  camera.”  You  will 
not  be  able  to  get  all  the  good  out  of  your  lens  unless 
your  camera  has  a long  bellows,  and  some  means  for 
supporting  the  lens  firmly  when  the  bellows  is  at  its 
longest  extension.  The  nearer  you  bring  your  camera 
to  an  object  you  wish  to  photograph,  the  further  away 
must  the  plate  be  from  the  lens. 

Notice  the  divisions  on  your  focussing-scale,  and 


Courtesy  of  Eastman  Kodak  Co, 

Focal-plane  Shutter 


Courtesv  o f Eastman  Kottak  Co. 
Ordinary  Shutter,  with  Iris 
Diaphragm 


Courtesy  of  Eastman  Kodak  Co. 

Developing  Tank  for  Roll  Film 


Courtesy  of 

Messrs.  Burke  James 

Developing  Tank  for  Plates 


Camera  Accessories 


THE  CA3IERA  AND  ITS  ATTACHMENTS  157 


you  will  see  how  quickly  the  spaces  between  the 
marks  increase  in  length  as  you  come  nearer  your  sub- 
ject. With  a short  bellows  you  cannot  get  near 
views,  or  views  on  a large  scale,  without  the  use  of  an 
additional  lens ; usually  you  can  get  nothing  nearer 
than  about  eight  or  ten  feet.  But  with  a long 
bellows,  a view  within  two  feet  or  even  less  is  quite 
possible,  and  this  is  often  desirable  in  taking  portraits, 
pictures  of  flowers,  insects,  or  still-life  objects.  The 
long  bellows  is  often  supported  by  an  “extension 
front”  — a part  of  the  base  that  is  arranged  to  slide 
forward.  The  long  bellows,  having  many  folds, 
sometimes  needs  a support  from  above,  and  a ring  is 
attached  so  that  a cord  may  be  tied  to  it  and  to  the 
top  of  the  camera  to  keep  the  bellows  from  sagging 
by  its  own  weight,  and  so  cutting  off  part  of  the  image. 
These  things  may  seem  very  elementary,  but  often  they 
are  not  explained  in  the  directions  for  using  cameras. 

The  long  bellows  camera  may  be  utilized  also  as  a 
copying  apparatus.  If  you  have  a photograph  already 
on  hand  of  which  you  want  to  make  an  enlarged  or 
reduced  copy,  by  setting  it  up  in  a bright  light  before 
the  camera,  extended  at  length,  you  may  photograph 
it  as  you  would  any  other  object.  It  will  probably 
be  necessary  in  this  case  to  unscrew  and  take  off  one 
of  the  lenses  of  your  camera,  if  your  lens  is  of  the 
sort  to  permit  the  use  of  half  of  it  at  a time.  By 
using  the  ground-glass,  you  can  determine  this.  Be 
careful  to  arrange  matters  so  as  to  have  no  reflec- 
tions from  the  surface  of  the  picture  you  are  copying. 
With  this  class  of  work,  however,  one  cannot  obtain 
the  best  results  without  special  “ copying  plates  ” and 
development  to  bring  out  strong  contrasts. 


158  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


One  more  mechanical  attachment  or  arrangement  is 
the  “ drop  front.”  When  a very  short  focus  or  wide- 
angle  lens  is  used,  the  front  that  extends  out  to  sup- 
port the  bellows  might  be  in  the  way,  and  cut  off  part 
of  the  view.  The  “drop  front”  is  hinged,  and  can  he 
turned  down  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  view. 

Of  the  different  sorts  of  finders,  we  have  already 
spoken,  and  here  we  need  only  repeat  the  warning 
that  the  finder  remains  unchanged  even  when  the 
main  camera  has  been  adjusted  in  several  ways.  The 
finder  usually  shows  only  the  view  that  the  camera, 
unadjusted,  takes  in : so  remember  that  you  may  have 
altered  the  view  the  finder  shows  — especially  when 
you  change  the  focus  or  move  the  lens  in  relation  to 
the  plate.  Possibly  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  the 
glasses  of  many  finders  are  framed  in  an  opening  of 
this  shape  (a) : 


a he 


Diagram  XIX 

This  is  when  they  are  reversible,  and  is  meant  to 
show  the  limits  of  the  view  when  the  plate  is  turned 
one  way  or  the  other.  Whichever  way  the  finder  is 
used,  you  may  see  what  is  on  the  plate  provided  you 
remember  that  the  plate  ends  at  the  projecting  corners, 
and  you  must  take  your  oblong  space  either  straight 


THE  CAMERA  AND  ITS  ATTACHMENTS  159 


across,  as  in  h ; or  upright, ’as  in  c,  leaving  out  the  pro- 
jections. Possibly  it  will  be  well  for  you  to  mark  in 
ink  or  paint  the  limits  of  the  views,  as  they  are  dotted 
in  the  two  diagrams ; it  will  save  you  some  blunders. 
There  are  plenty  of  little  things  to  think  about  when 
using  a camera  intelligently,  and  every  help  is  useful 
in  saving  errors  and  trouble. 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  not  speak  of  exposure 
except  as  connected  with  the  mechanical  arrangements 
for  regulating  it.  The  earliest  of  these  we  all  re- 
member from  experiences  at  the  professional  photog- 
raphers. It  is  not  nearly  so  much  used  as  it  deserves  to 
be.  It  is  the  “ cap,”  or  little  leather  cover  that  can  be 
removed  from  and  replaced  over  the  lens.  Of  course 
it  is  used  practically  always  in  time-exposures,  but  for 
these  it  is  most  valuable,  and  often  recommended  by 
very  skillful  workers.  Rightly  used,  it  avoids  all 
jarring  of  the  camera,  enables  one  to  regulate  exposure 
very  accurately,  and  is  simple  in  use.  The  usual  fault 
of  the  amateur  being  to  under-expose,  the  cap  has  the 
advantage  of  lengthening  the  exposure  a little  by  the 
time  between  the  decision  to  end  the  exposure  and  the 
putting  on  of  the  cap.  Besides  all  this,  the  cap  is 
simple.  You  cannot  help  knowing  when  you  take  it 
off  and  when  you  put  it  on.  It  should  be  put  on 
and  taken  off  by  , means  of  a turning  or  screwing 
motion. 

As  to  shutters,  they  should  of  course  work  promptly, 
smoothly,  and  without  jarring.  The  ideal  shutter 
should  expose  a plate  wholly,  during  all  the  time  it  is 
open,  or  at  least  should  expose  all  parts  of  the  plate 
with  exact  equality.  There  is  only  one  shutter  in 
common  use  that  does  this  — the  “ focal  plane  ” 


160  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


shutter,  the  sort  ^that  is  used  in  making  the  very 
shortest  exposures. 

The  focal-plane  shutter  is  put  as  near  the  plate- 
surface  as  possible,  and  consists  of  a long  curtain  like 
a window  shade,  wound  on  two  rollers,  top  and  bottom. 
In  this  curtain  are  one  or  more  slits  crosswise,  the  full 
width  of  the  plate.  If  there  is  one  slit,  it  is  adjustable 
so  that  it  may  be  either  a wide  or  narrow  space.  If 
there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  of  different  sizes. 
By  loosening  or  tightening  the  spring  that  moves  the 
curtain,  or  by  using  a wide  or  a narrow  slit,  the  plate 
is  exposed  for  a longer  or  a shorter  time. 


I I 


Diagram  XX — Ccetain  of  Focal-plank  Shutter 


Suppose  the  spring  so  set  that  the  curtain  will  be 
pulled  across  the  plate  (say,  four  inches)  in  second. 
Now  suppose  the  slit  in  the  curtain  is  inch  across. 
That  ^ is  in  front  of  each  bit  of  the  plate  successively. 
There  are  — ® of  an  inch  in  the  four  inches  across  the 
plate,  so  the  slit  covers  32  spaces  in  yV  of  a second 
and  each  space  gets  an  equal  exposure  of  335  of  a 
second  — from  top  to  bottom  of  the  plate. 

Again,  if  the  slit  moves  across  in  5V  of  a second, 
then  each  space  gets  an  exposure  of  tsVu  of  a second, 
and  so  on. 

Compare  this  with  a shutter  that  opens  from  the 
centre,  and  then  closes  to  the  centre  again,  and  you 
will  see  that  the  ordinary  shutter  lights  the  middle  of 


Photogkai’h  Made  With  a Focal  Plane  Shutter,  at  Slow  Sleeu 
(See  explanation  on  page  i6ij 


THE  CA:VIERA  and  its  attachments  161 


the  plate  first,  and  darkens  it  last  — so  the  edges  of 
the  plate  are  for  a much  shorter  time  exposed  to  light 
than  the  middle. 

Different  forms  of  shutter-leaves  have  been  made  to 
remedy  this  inequality  somewhat,  but  the  only  one 
that  does  so  entirely  is  ingeniously  made  so  that  its 
four  leaves  begin  their  opening  at  the  centre,  open 
into  a star-shape,  then  (turning  over  on  their  pivots) 
close  f rom  another  part  of  the  circle,  so  exposing  the 
edges  a little  longer  than  the  centre,  but  making  the 
exposure  nearly  equal  all  over  the  plate,  and  bringing 
the  longer  exposure  where  it  is  most  needed.  This  is 
the  “Multi-Speed”  shutter,  and  remarkable  pictures 
are  said  to  be  secured  by  its  use. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  shutter  will  prove  to  be 
what  is  claimed,  since  the  focal-plane  shutters  are  open 
to  the  serious  defect  that  the  picture  secured  is  made 
up  of  strips  taken  at  different  instants.  Now,  suppos- 
ing a locomotive  or  an  automobile  to  be  photographed 
by  means  of  the  focal-plane  shutter,  it  is  clear  that  the 
object  moves  forward  a little  between  the  times  of 
taking  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  car,  making  a 
slight  misfit ; and  causing  the  picture  to  seem  distorted. 
This  effect  must  always  be  present  to  some  extent,  and 
in  taking  pictures  of  very  quickly  moving  objects  it 
may  spoil  the  picture.  Of  course,  if  an  object  is 
moving  downward  or  upward,  the  picture  is  affected 
otherwise,  and  the  object  is  apparently  shortened  or 
lengthened  as  it  happens  to  be  moving  with  the  slit  or 
against  its  motion.  So  much  for  the  focal-plane 
shutter,  which,  though  mainly  used  for  very  short  ex- 
posures, may  also  be  made  so  it  can  be  set  for  all 
lengths. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE 

Importance  of  right  exposures  — The  latitude  of  plates  — Practical 
ways  of  judging  exposure  — Time  of  year  and  day  — Speed  of 
lens  — Size  of  image  — Effect  of  diaphragms — “Catching  up” 
of  weaker  lights  — Effect  of  over-exposure  — Effect  of  under- 
exposure— “Expose  for  the  shadows” — General  lighting  of 
subject  — Exposure-meters  — The  system  of  marking  the  stops 
— Adapting  exposure  to  your  shutter-speed  — How  the  stop 
affects  depth  of  focus — Measuring  time-exposures — Objects  in 
motion  — Exposure  tables  — A photographer’s  advice. 

Enough  has  been  said  already,  it  is  hoped,  to 
convince  the  young  reader  of  the  importance  of 
making  right  exposures.  It  is  so  entirely  the  key  to 
success  in  photographic  work  that  it  comes  second  only 
to  the  choice  of  subject  — hardly  to  that,  for  unless 
you  can  get  a good  picture,  the  selection  of  the  subject 
is  of  no  use.  Consequently  you  must  fix  your  mind 
on  the  question  of  exposure  every  time  you  take  a 
picture,  so  as  to  get  into  the  habit  of  judging  exposures 
correctly. 

Fortunately  you  are  not  required  to  make  a bull’s- 
eye  at  every  shot.  The  photographic  plates  have 
much  “ latitude,”  or  range,  and  may  give  good  results 
even  if  you  give  as  much  as  double  the  exposure  — 
speaking  generally.  If  you  will  think  the  matter  over 
you  will  see  that  whenever  you  take  a picture  contain- 
ing variously  lighted  surfaces,  you  are  making  a 
single  exposure  do  for  lights  of  greatly  differing 
strength ; in  a landscape,  for  example,  if  you  take  a 
snap-shot  of  jV  of  ^ second  you  give  that  time  both  to 

162 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE 


163 


sunlighted  spaces,  and  spaces  in  shadow.  It  is  the 
latitude  of  the  plate  that  gives  good  results  in  both 
parts  of  the  picture.  You  will  also  see  that  it  is  the 
same  latitude  of  the  plate  that  gives  good  gradation 
— or  wide  variety  in  your  lights  and  darks.  Now, 
plates  of  medium  speed  have  the  most  latitude,  and 
give  the  most  gradation,  having  a thicker  coating,  and 
more  ability  to  record  different  kinds  of  lighting. 

In  making  exposures,  then,  you  have  only  to  get  the 
time  generally  right  — fitting  it  to  the  average  lighting 
of  your  picture  (except,  of  course,  in  scientific  work, 
copying  work,  and  other  such  cases  where  exact  results 
are  possible  and  necessary). 

The  practical  way  of  getting  at  the  right  exposures 
is  to  do  one  of  two  things.  Either  you  must  get  all 
the  information  your  can  about  your  plates,  camera,  and 
the  light,  and  then  follow  fixed  rules  taken  from 
books  and  directions ; or  you  must  learn  by  practice, 
keeping  a record  of  your  trials  under  various  circum- 
stances and  with  various  apparatus.  A third  way  — if 
you  “ don’t  care,”  is  to  guess  at  it  blindly,  and  trust 
to  hitting  the  right  exposure  now  and  then.  But  this 
we  do  not  advise  unless  you  have  a long  stock  of 
patience  and  can  afford  to  waste  time  and  material. 

As  to  getting  information  on  the  subject  of  ex- 
posures, and  proceeding  scientifically,  the  Italian 
proverb  is  a good  adviser,  “ Chi  va  piano,  va  sano  • 
chi  va  sano,  va  lontano,'^  — “Who  goes  slowly,  goes 
safely ; who  goes  safely,  goes  far.”  It  is  the  surest 
method  of  learning  to  make  your  exposures  correct, 
and  your  pictures  good. 

The  things  to  be  determined  are  five  : 

1.  The  light  strength.  2.  The  lens  speed.  3.  The 


164  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


plate’s  speed  and  latitude.  4.  The  lighting  of  the 
subject  in  general.  5.  The  question  of  motion. 

The  first  of  these  means  the  value  of  the  light  at 
different  times.  As  to  this,  it  is  a matter  fixed  by  the 
position  of  the  sun  in  the  sky  and  this  depends  on  the 
time  of  year,  and  time  of  day.  Consequently,  it  is  to 
be  found  out  from  tables  regularly  printed  in  photo- 
graphic books,  almanacs,  diaries  and  so  on.  Such  a 
table  is  in  the  chapter  of  this  book  given  to  rules  and 
formulae. 

Lens-speed  is  only  another  way  of  saying  size  of  the 
lens-opening  compared  with  \is  focal  length. 

Focal  length  is,  to  be  exact,  the  distance  from  the 
“ optical  centre  ” of  a lens  to  its  “ principal  focus  ” : 
and  the  principal  focus  is  the  point  back  of  your  lens 
where  parallel  rays  coming  from  outside  of  the  camera 
meet.  But,  since  the  rays  coming  through  your  lens 
from  a point  a great  distance  away  are  pretty  nearly 
parallel,  the  principal  focus  of  your  lens  is  about  at  the 
place  where  the  ground-glass  is  when  you  adjust  it 
for  objects  100  feet  away  or  more ; and  the  focal 
length  of  your  lens,  roughly  speaking,  is  the  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  lens  or  from  the  diaphragm 
between  the  lenses  to  the  ground-glass  when  set  for 
100  feet  away.  Other  names  for  focal  length  are 
“ equivalent  focal  length,”  “ or  “ equivalent  focus.” 
The  word  “ focus  ” (meaning  “ principal  focus  ”)  is  fre- 
quently used  to  mean  focal  length. 

The  reason  why  the  focal  length  of  a lens  affects 
* length  of  exposure  is  simply  because  it  affects  the 
distance  of  the  plate  from  the  lens,  and  so  the  size 
of  the  image  and  the  amount  of  surface  over  which 
the  light  from  any  object  is  spread  on  the  plate. 


PEACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE  KJo 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  image,  from  any  object,  the 
light  from  that  object  makes  the  image.  Suppose  a 
square  piece  of  paper,  two  inches  on  a side,  to  be  the 
thing  we  are  photographing.  The  image  on  the  plate 
gets  all  its  light  from  the  rays  reflected  from  those 
four  square  inches.  If  the  image  is  doubled  in  height 
on  the  plate  by  using  a lens  of  greater  focal  length, 
the  image  is  made  by  the  same  light  spread  over  a sur- 
face farther  away  from  the  lens  and  four  times  as 
large.  Consequently  it  is  one-fourth  as  strong,  and 
requires  four  times  the  exposure. 


Diagram  XXIV  shows  this  principle.  Through  J, 
which  represents  a card  with  a round  hole  in  it,  pass  a 
certain  number  of  rays  from  the  candle,  a.  Cis  a 
card,  say,  four  inches  from  a and  d a card  eight  inches 
from  a.  The  light  spot  made  on  d is  four  times  as 
large  and  four  times  as  weak  as  that  on  c. 

A large  camera,  say  one  taking  a 5x7  plate,  has 
usually  a lens  of  greater  focal  length  than  a small  one. 
But  you  must  not  think  that  with  a large  camera  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a longer  exposure  than  with  a small 
camera ! It  would  be  so,  if  the  two  lenses  were  the 


166  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOURG  PEOPLE 


same  size ; but  in  the  large  camera  the  manufacturer 
puts  a larger  lens,  and  usually,  a better  one,  so  that 
the  greater  distance  of  the  plate  from  the  lens  in  a 
large  camera  is  more  than  made  up  for  by  the  larger 
number  of  rays  admitted. 

But  first,  the  size  of  the  image  depends  on  the  focal 
length  of  the  lens  and  the  distance  of  the  object ; 
secondly,  the  amount  of  light  admitted  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  opening. 

A lens  of  short  focal  length  makes  a small  image  ; a 
long-focus  lens  makes  a large  image,  if  both  are  used 
at  their  principal  focus.  For  this  reason,  “ wide 
angle  ” lenses,  which  are  always  of  short  focus,  are 
used  to  photograph  rooms  in  which  one  cannot  get  far 
off  and  yet  wishes  to  get  everything  in.  For  objects 
very  much  nearer  than  100  feet  (as  in  copying,  and 
enlarging),  the  lens  is  really  used  as  one  of  a different 
focal  length. 

And  this  becomes  important  when  we  consider  the 
effect  of  the  diaphragms  or  stops  on  exposure.  Since 
stops  are  named  by  their  fractional  value  compared  to 
the  focal  length  of  the  lens  — as  f /8,  f/12,  meaning 
an  opening  with  a diameter  of  the  focal  length,  or 
with  a diameter  of  the  focal  length,  when  we 
change  the  focus  at  which  we  use  a lens,  the  stoj)s 
change  in  value.  This  is  only  important,  of  course, 
where  the  change  is  large — as  usually  in  taking 
photographs  very  near  the  object,  in  enlarging,  and 
in  copying,  where  the  ground-glass  or  the  plate,  is 
moved  far  away  from  the  lens. 

Of  course  this  theory  is  only  to  help  you  in  seeing 
the  reason  why.  The  practical  thing  to  remember  is 
that  when  you  make  a big  image,  you  are  spreading 


Courtesy  of  American  Photography 

The  Efeect  ok  Focal  Length  in  I'hotogkai  iiv 

The  iiunibei's  on  the  portraits  indicate  the  focal  length  of  tlie  lens  used.  With 
the  frinch  lens  it  was  necessary  to  place  the  camera  very  near  to  the  subject,  hence 
the  great  disproportion  between  the  nearer  and  the  farther  hand.  As  the  lenses  of 
greater  focal  length  were  used,  the  camera  was  moved  further  away,  and  the  dis- 
proportion became  less. 


V-’.  ""  > 2 r*s3^^i5 

■*  ••-<■•*  ''V^^^li  - ' •*/  ■] 

T ~ - ■ A J ^tSBT.  ■ “ ■ , |_--.  — 1-'  ( 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE 


167 


over  a larger  surface  the  light  that  makes  the  small 
image  — and  so  must  lengthen  exposure  to  make  up. 
And  this  is  true  whether  you  get  the  big  image  by 
bringing  your  camera  near  to  the  object  or  by  using 
a lens  of  longer  focus  — as  you  do  by  adding  a 
magnifying  portrait  lens,  or  a telephoto  lens,  both  of 
which  merely  make  your  lens  equivalent  to  one  of 
longer  focus,  and  so  spread  the  image. 

It  is,  perhaps,  a little  hard  to  understand  why 
the  image  of  a near-by  object  is  less  strong  than  that  of 
a farther  object.  An  additional  reason  why  this  is 
so  is  the  fact  that  for  near  objects  the  ground- 
glass  screen  is  moved  farther  away  from  the  lens, 
spreading  the  image  over  more  surface.  You  will  be 
helped  by  referring  again  to  Diagram  X,  several  chap- 
ters back. 

The  plate’s  speed,  or  latitude,  of  course  affects  the 
exposure  by  the  ability  of  the  chemicals  in  the  plate- 
coating to  receive  an  effect  quickly  or  slowly.  If 
you  use  rapid  plates  or  films,  you  can  use  your  lens 
at  smaller  openings,  or  for  quicker  exposures.  Slow 
plates  require  the  larger  openings  or  longer  exposures. 
Now,  the  effect  of  light  on  a plate  is  greatest  at  first 
(at  any  given  spot),  and  then  lessens  because  the  place 
already  acted  on  is  less  and  less  sensitive.  So  long  ex- 
posure tends  to  give  the  weaker  lights  time  to  catch 
up  with  the  stronger  ones.  Therefore  a plate  that  can 
be  exposed  a longer  time  will  show  the  effect  of  more 
lights  of  varying  strength,  than  a short-exposure  plate 
will  record. 

If  you  expose  too  long,  all  parts  of  the  plate  will 
tend  to  arrive  at  the  same  state  of  exposure.  If  too 
short  an  exposure  be  made,  the  strong  lights  will  act. 


168  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  Y’OUNG  PEOPLE 


the  others  will  not.  Stopping  exposure  at  the  right 
time,  you  will  get  the  strong  lights  not  too  strong, 
and  yet  the  weaker  lights  will  have  a fair  chance  to 
catch  up,  and  will  have  their  right  relation  in  the 
negative. 

Suppose,  as  an  illustration,  your  plate  was  divided 
into  a lot  of  minute  squares,  and  each  square  would 
hold  only  a given  amount  of  water.  Then  suppose  the 
light  rays  to  be  streams  of  water  of  different  sizes  and 
speeds.  Turning  on  all  these  streams  together,  we 
may  accomplish  three  results.  If  we  turn  them  on  for 
a mere  instant,  a few  boxes  will  be  filled  by  strong 
streams,  some  partly  filled,  others  nearly  empty.  If  we 
keep  them  turned  on  too  long,  all  the  boxes  will  be 
equally  full.  Neither  case  will  give  us  a result  from 
which  we  get  a close  idea  of  the  amount  of  water  that 
should  go  to  each  box  to  record  the  flow  in  right 
proportion.  We  must  let  the  streams  run  long  enough 
to  fill  up  only  the  boxes  w'here  the  strongest  streams 
are,  and  must  shut  off  the  w'ater  before  the  weaker 
streams  can  have  as  much  effect  as  the  stronger  ones. 

Over-exposure  overflows  all  the  boxes.  Under- 
exposure gives  too  little  to  the  boxes  where  streams 
are  small.  Right  exposure  represents  fairly  all  the 
intensities.  Right  exposure  begins  when  the  w'eakest 
light  has  had  time  to  act  on  the  plate,  and  ends  at  the 
moment  when  there  ceases  to  be  difference  between 
the  highest  lights  and  those  not  quite  so  bright.  You 
can  see  that  the  important  matter  is  to  give  the  duller 
lights  time  ; the  higher  lights  will  cease  to  act  so 
rapidly  before  the  other  lights  are  through  their  work. 
Therefore,  it  is  an  old  maxim,  “ Expose  for  the 
shadows.”  But  this  does  not  mean  to  forget  the  high 


PKACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSTJEE 


169 


lights  entirely  ; it  means  only  that  they  hurt  your  plate 
less  by  a little  over-action  than  the  plate  suffers  from 
failing  to  record  the  duller  lights. 

A quick  plate  is  sensitive,  and  goes  through  its 
whole  action  rapidly  — arriving  sooner  at  the  “ over- 
exposed ” state.  The  slow  plate  gives  more  time  to 
the  whole  process,  and  having  a thicker  or  richer 
emulsion,  gives  the  high  lights  more  to  do  in  affecting 
the  chemicals,  so  that  it  does  not  so  soon  become  over- 
exposed, and  the  range  of  action  is  wider.  It  is  not 
unlike  a long  distance  foot-race  compared  to  a short 
dash.  Supposing  the  light  rays  to  be  runners,  the 
long  distance  race  will  leave  them  more  spread  out, 
and  will  record  their  relative  speeds  more  plainly  than 
the  short  dash. 

As  to  the  question  of  the  general  lighting  of  the 
subject,  there  have  been  many  attempts  to  classify 
subjects  in  regard  to  length  of  exposure,  and  there 
will  be  as  many  as  there  are  authorities.  The  things 
to  bear  in  mind  chiefly  are  the  colour  and  the  amounts 
of  light  and  shade.  Of  colour  we  hav’^e  already  said 
much,  and  we  need  only  remind  you  that  red  and  yel- 
low rays  mean  dark,  blue  and  violet  rays,  light  to  the 
camera.  Green  in  nature  is  more  apt  to  act  as  yellow 
than  as  blue ; and  the  difference  of  lighting  between 
the  sky  regions  and  the  earth  regions,  is  simply  enor- 
mous. We  shall  give  the  usual  suggestions  as  to  sub- 
ject, however,  in  the  cTiapter  for  such  tables,  leaving 
you  to  consider  them  as  guides  only. 

Many  exposure  meters  exist,  and  are  especially 
helpful  in  training  your  judgment.  They  are  not 
exact  when  based  upon  the  effect  of  exposure  as 
judged  from  the  turning  dark  of  a piece  of  printing- 


170  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


out  paper,  since  the  light  does  not  act  on  the  plate 
just  as  light  acts  on  the  paper.  Neither  can  they  be 
based  on  transparency  of  any  material  as  judged  by 
the  eye,  for  vision-light  and  photographic-light  differ. 
Still  they  help  you  to  think  of  all  the  things  that  af- 
fect exposure,  and  the  latitude,  or  range,  of  plates 
helps  to  make  up  for  their  shortcomings. 

You  will  find  that  the  exposure-meters  give  you  the 
right  time  for  a certain  stop  or  diaphragm  opening. 
You  have  already  been  told  how  the  diaphragm  af- 
fects the  speed  of  your  lens  by  regulating  the  light 
that  is  admitted  through  the  opening.  We  must, 
therefore,  consider  the  stop  as  a means  helping  toward 
right  exposure.  Luckily,  the  relation  between  stops 
themselves  is  very  simple,  the  rule  being  to  take 
the  ratio  between  the  stops,  and  square  it  to  get 
the  increase  or  decrease  of  time.  That  is,  twice 
the  diameter  across,  requires  four  times  the  ex- 
posure. 

Stops  are  marked  in  two  systems.  One  gives  the 
diameter  of  each  stop  as  a fraction  of  the  focal  length 
of  the  lens.  The  usual  openings  in  this  system  are 
f/4,  f/8,  f/12,  f/16,  f/22,  f/32,  f/45,  f/64. 
This  means  that  the  openings  are  y’j,  and  so  on, 

of  the  focus  of  the  lens.  Supposing  a G-inch  focus 
lens,  the  openings  would  be  2,  g,  /j,  and  so  on,  of  an 
inch,  or  ij4  inch,  ^ inch,  inch  across.  Conse- 
quently, if  for  the  stop  f /8  you  needed  to  give  (by 
your  meter  exposure)  1 second,  for  f/16  (which  is  a 
stop  of  half  the  diameter)  you  would  need  to  give  four 
seconds.  All  this  you  will  find  given  in  the  tables. 
Ordinarily  you  will  be  able  to  go  by  j'our  general  rule 
that  the  opening  means  4 times  the  exposure,  or 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE 


171 


twice  the  opening,  3^  the  exposure.  This  is  the  focal 
or  “ f ” system. 

The  other  system  is  the  “Uniform  S^'^stem,”  or 
“ U.  S.”  method  of  marking.  This  is  so  marked  as  to 
save  you  from  calculating.  In  this  the  openings  are 
marked  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32  and  so  on  — each  number  be- 
ing twice  the  last,  and  requiring  twice  the  exposure. 
The  number  1,  U.  S.,  corresponds  to  f / 4 in  the  other  ; 
consequently  the  f /8  is  U.  S.  4,  and  f /12  is  (nearly) 
U.  S.  8 ; and,  luckily,  f/16  agrees  with  U.  S.  16  — 
which  enables  you  to  compare  the  two  systems  with- 
out a table.  You  have  simply  to  write  down  your 
f / system  numbers,  and  then  put  U.  S.  16  opposite 
f/16.  Then  you  can  calculate  the  other  U.  S.  num- 
bers thus : 


f/4 

U.  S. 

1 

f/5 

u.  s. 

2 

f /8 

u.  s. 

4 

f /12 

u.  s. 

8 

f/16 

u.  s. 

16 

f/22 

u.  s. 

32 

The  f numbers  you  will  soon  learn,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  marked  on  your  stops.  But  if  the  U.  S. 
numbers  are  on  your  stops,  it  will  be  well  to  learn 
what  they  agree  with,  for  writers  on  photography 
constantly  refer  to  the  f system. 

To  make  short  exposures,  use  the  wider  stops ; to 
lengthen  the  time  of  exposing — as  in  the  blinding 
light  of  the  seashore,  or  on  the  open  sea  in  sunshine, 
use  the  smaller  stops,  and  'keep  the  shutter  speed  the 
same.  The  stops  thus  help  to  prevent  over-exposure. 
With  a lens  good  enough  to  be  usable  with  a wide 
opening,  you  may  often  select  a length  of  exposure  to 


172  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


suit  your  shutter-speed,  since  a longer  exposure  with 
a small  opening  has  the  same  effect  as  a shorter  ex- 
posure with  a wide  opening.  Thus  gV  of  a second  at 
f/16,  has  the  same  effect  upon  the  plate  as  tjJj  of  a 
second  at  f/8  — so  far  as  mere  exposure  goes. 

You  must  remember,  however,  that  using  a smaller 
stop  brings  more  objects  into  correct  focus  ; and  also 
that  motions  which  5^5  at  f/8  will  catch  may  be 
blurred  if  you  expose  for  gV  second  at  f/16.  All 
these  matters  should  be  thought  of  whenever  you 
change  the  diaphragms. 

In  order  to  make  time  exposures,  either  measure 
them  by  the  second  hand  of  your  watch,  or  learn  by 
a little  practice,  to  count  seconds  thus : “ One  and  — 

two,  and  three,  and  four.”  Try  this  with  watch  in 
hand,  and  }'ou  will  soon  hit  on  the  right  rhythm.  Or 
you  may  say,  “ One  second,  two  seconds,  three  sec- 
onds ” — and  so  on.  As  rate  of  speaking  differs  you 
must  find  out  your  own  rate. 

Another  way  is  to  swing  a small  pendulum,  made 
of  a bullet  painted  white  and  attached  to  a string  about 
ten  inches  long.  This  will  beat  seconds  very  closely, 
and  you  can  see  it  without  looking  at  it  directly. 

As  a general  rule,  give  generous  time  whenever  j'ou 
can  do  so  without  spoiling  your  picture  because  of 
moving  objects.  Learn  all  about  your  camera  and  its 
lens,  so  you  know  what  it  will  do  for  you  when  in 
various  kinds  of  light.  There  is  no  attempt  made 
here  to  go  into  details,  for  you  will  in  all  doubtful 
cases  be  guided  by  the  tables  made  for  the  purpose ; 
but  do  not  forget  that  tables  are  made  to  suit  certain 
stops,  and  are  of  little  use  unless  you  know  at  what 
opening  your  lens  is  working. 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  EXPOSURE 


173 


The  catching  of  objects  when  in  motion  is  often  a 
matter  of  cleverness  in  the  use  of  the  camera.  The 
secret  of  the  whole  matter  is  to  suit  your  exposure  to 
the  kind  of  motion,  and  also  to  make  the  exposure  at 
the  right  time  and  from  the  best  point  of  view. 

The  rapidity  with  which  an  image  changes  place  on 
the  plate,  depends  on  how  near  you  are  to  the  object, 
and  upon  whether  the  moving  things  are  in  motion  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  camera  is 
pointed.  If  you  are  near,  the  image  moves  fast,  and 
so  slower  exposures  may  be  made  as  you  are  further 
away.  If  the  motion  is  directly  across  the  line  of  the 
camera,  the  image  moves  faster  than  when  motion  is 
nearer  in  the  direction  of  the  pointing.  Consequently, 
to  catch  a rapid  object,  get  as  far  from  it  as  you  can 
afford  to,  and  let  the  camera  bo  pointed  somewhat  to- 
ward the  direction  of  motion. 

Thus,  in 
D i a g r a m 
XXV,  here, 
the  object 
moving  from 
A to  B takes 
longer  to 
move  its  im- 
age across  the 
plate  than  one 

moving  from  C to  D.  And  a to  5 is  a path  longer 
than  A to  B,  while  c to  is  longer  than  from  C to  D. 

Consequently  the  shortest  exposure  is  required  for 
the  path  C to  D,  the  longest  may  be  made  on  a to  h. 

Then,  too,  make  the  exposure  just  at  the  slow- 
ing down  point,  if  there  be  one,  as  when  an  ob- 


B D 

Diagbam  XXII 


174  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


ject  thrown  upward  is  just  changing  motion  from  up 
to  down. 

A few  cents  spent  for  exposure  tables,  which  come 
in  note-books  for  recording  your  work,  will  save  you 
time  and  trouble  in  the  long  run,  and  will  teach  you 
much. 

But,  above  all,  do  not  be  afraid  to  try  experiments 
so  long  as  you  learn  something  from  each  one.  The 
making  of  creditable  photographs  is  done  by  thousands 
of  people  everywhere,  every  day,  and  this  would  not 
be  so,  if  the  subject  of  exposing  correctly  was  an  in- 
soluble mystery. 

One  writer  in  a photographic  magazine  says:  — 
“ From  one-tenth  to  one-fourth  of  a second  is  far  more 
apt  to  be  suitable  to  average  outdoor  pictures  than  one 
one-hundredth,  and  to  make  slow  exposures  the  camera 
cannot  be  held  in  the  hand. 

“ It  would  almost  insure  success,  so  far  as  printing 
quality  may  be  concerned,  if  one  Avho  knew  little  of 
photography  used  a rapid  jdate,  a rather  large  stop, 
and  a quarter-second  exposure  invariably.  He  would 
certainly  obtain  far  more  printable  negatives  than  he 
would  at  a fiftieth  or  a hundredth,  and  the  artistic 
value  would,  whether  he  knew  it  or  not,  be  greatly 
enhanced  through  better  definition  of  distance,  better 
perspective  and  more  truthful  representation  of  what 
might  be  doing.” 


CHAPTER  XVI 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


The  new  knowledge  — The  old  way — Ilurter  and  Driffield  system  — 
Their  method  of  work  — A “good  negative”  — How  it  must  be 
judged  — The  laws  of  transparency  — The  curve  of  development  — 
Conclusions  from  it — The  four  stages  in  development  — Explan- 
ation of  them  — Developing  to  keep  the  right  transparencies  — 
Effect  of  long  developing  — The  rules  resulting  from  the  new 
knowledge  — The  factorial  system  — Effect  of  temperature  — 
Tank  and  machine  development  — The  old  and  new  contrasted  — 
Choice  of  a developer  — Need  for  exactness  in  new  methods. 


Within  four  or  five  years  there  has  been  an  entire 
change  in  the  art  of  developing  photographic  expo- 
sures. This  has  corae  from  new  knowledge  about  the 
process,  and  this  knowledge  is  entirely  scientific. 
That  is  to  say,  it  is  the  result  of  study  meant  to  find 
out  in  a scientific  way  just  what  are  the  principles  and 
rules  by  which  plates  must  be  treated  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results. 

Before  these  studies  were  made,  each  photographer 
made  his  own  experiments,  reported  his  results,  and 
gave  his  advice  to  others.  This  filled  the  photographic 
books  and  magazines  with  a lot  of  receipts,  dodges, 
notions,  and  suggestions  not  unlike  those  to  be  found 
to-day  in  cook-books. 

The  result  was  to  leave  both  professionals  and  ama- 
teurs to  grope  in  the  dark.  Some  did  well,  others 
badly;  but  none  were  certain.  The  wise  ones  with 
plenty  of  experience  learned  to  get  good  negatives 

176 


176  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


most  of  the  time  by  sticking  to  the  same  plates,  the 
same  developer,  and  the  same  general  procedure.  But 
this  was  to  go  by  “ rule  of  thumb,”  and  often  their 
ideas  about  the  process  w’ere  all  wrong  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  their  results  were  good  nearly  every  time. 
In  very  truth  it  may  be  said  that  their  notions  were 
always  Avrong,  for  they  believed  that  development 
could  do  many  things  now  known  to  be  impossible. 

The  change  came  about  solely  through  the  wise,  pa- 
tient and  able  work  of  two  amateurs  in  photography 
— an  eminent  chemist.  Dr.  Hurter,  and  Mr.  V.  C. 
Driffield,  an  engineer  who  was  his  fellow  Avorker. 
These  men  about  the  year  1890,  after  some  years  of 
careful  study  succeeded  in  finding  out  and  setting  forth 
the  principles  on  Avhich  the  process  of  development 
depended.  This  Avas  no  fortunate  accident,  but  the 
result  of  a determination  to  make  developing  scientific. 

By  exposing  and  developing  plates  under  knoAvn 
conditions,  and  by  carefully  testing  the  results  in  each 
case,  they  found  out  the  exact  rules  by  Avhich  negatives 
can  be  produced,  and  then  put  the  rules  in  such  form 
that  others  could  understand  them,  follow  them,  and 
secure  certain  kinds  of  negatives  at  Avill.  In  brief, 
they  created  a science  of  developing. 

Although  their  experiments  and  discussions  are  not 
easy  for  young  readers  to  folloAV,  the  general  idea  of 
them  is  simple  enough  to  be  easily  knoAvn  by  every 
user  of  a camera. 

Here  is  a brief  statement  of  the  method  by  which 
they  came  to  their  conclusions. 

In  order  to  get  a good  negative,  the  first  thing  is  to 
fix  in  our  minds  what  is  meant  by  those  two  AA'ords. 
If  Ave  think  over  the  question  we  shall  see  that  we  are 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


177 


seeking  to  make  a negative  containing  parts  of  differ- 
ent resistances  to  the  passing  of  light.  The  whole  ob- 
ject of  a negative  is  to  make  a good  print.  A good 
print  is  one  in  which  the  lighter  and  darker  parts  are 
lighter  or  darker  just  as  the  lights  reflected  from  the 
original  scene  into  the  camera  were  lighter  and  darker. 
The  print  must  represent  the  original  scene  in  its  gra- 
dations from  lightest  to  darkest.  If  it  does  this  fairly 
and  truly,  it  is  a good  print. 

But  the  print  depends  upon  the  negative.  So  the 
negative  must  be  such  that  light  (in  making  the  print) 
must  come  through  lighter  and  darker  portions  in  the 
same  relations  as  that  light  was  reflected  from,  the 
original  scene.  To  put  it  in  other  words  — the  trans- 
parency of  the  negative  must  be  in  right  proportions, 
in  agreement,  with  the  lighting  of  the  original  scene. 
So  the  whole  question  is  to  secure  just  the  right  grades 
of  transparency  in  the  negative.  So  far  there  is  no 
disagreement  with  the  old  notions.  But  here  the  dif- 
ference begins. 

The  old  way  of  judging  this  transparency  was  by 
the  eye  or  by  actual  trial  in  making  a print.  The  new 
way  is  to  inquire  “ what  makes  a negative  transparent 
in  some  places  and  less  so  in  others?”  And  to  settle 
this  question  llurter  and  Driffield  made  their  experi- 
ments, in  order  to  get  actual  scientific  answers,  rather 
than  guesswork. 

They  proved  that  the  transparency  or  opacity  of 
any  part  of  a plate  (that  is  its  power  to  let  light 
through)  depended  on  the  amount  of  silver  which  ex- 
posure and  developing  brought  there  tostay.  Then  they 
showed  by  a long  list  of  accurate  experiments  the  laws 
by  which  silver  was  made  in  various  parts  of  the  plate. 


178  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


This  amount  of  silver  depended  upon  the  length  of 
the  exposure  to  light,  so  they  measured  the  rate  at 
which  the  light  acted  in  preparing  silver  to  be  dark- 


o I 3 4 8 i6  33  64  &c.  up  to  S24|388 

Exposure  ; Seconds. 


From  the  Photo-Miniature,  Ko.  56 
Diagka.m  XXIII 

ened  by  developing.  The  amount  of  silver  thus  made 
ready  was  shown  to  bo  governed  by  an  exact  law,  and 
this  law  came  from  the  fact  that  as  the  different  }>arts 
of  the  plate  were  acted  on  by  light  the  amount  of  sil- 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


179 


ver  to  be  acted  on  became  less  all  the  time.  Thus,  at 
first,  the  light  has  all  the*  silver  to  act  on,  then  some 
part  of  this  is  changed,  thus  leaving  less,  and  so  on  till 
all  the  silver  has  been  changed,  and  no  more  can  be  done. 

As  is  the  custom  of  modern  scientific  men,  they  set 
this  forth  in  a diagram.  They  drew  a horizontal  line, 
and  divided  it  into  lengths  to  represent  time  of  ex- 
posure. At  the  left  end  of  this  line  they  drew  another 
at  right  angles  to  represent  the  effect  of  the  light  in 
changing  the  silver.  Then,  by  means  of  their  tests 
with  plates,  they  could  show  just  how  much  silver  was 
affected  at  each  differing  length  of  exposure. 

This  diagram  showed  the  facts,  and  from  it  the 
effect  of  exposure  could  be  studied.  They  made  many 
such  diagrams  and  found  that  all  agreed  in  certain 
general  features.  The  points  indicating  how  much 
silver  was  affected  by  each  length  of  exposure  were 
connected  by  a curved  line  drawn  through  them,  and 
this  showed  to  the  eye  just  how  the  changing  of  the 
silver  proceeded.  If  you  examine  the  diagram,  you 
will  see  that  at  the  starting  point,  left  hand  lower 
corner,  there  is  no  time  of  exposure,  and  no  silver ; 
then  the  curve  seems  to  rise  rapidly,  both  time  and 
silver  increasing.  Then  the  curve  rises  at  a steady 
even  rate  that  makes  it  almost  a straight  line ; then  it 
droops,  turns,  and  begins  to  go  downward.  This 
means  that  the  changing  of  the  silver  at  first  proceeds 
increasingly,  then  regularly,  then  lessens,  and  finally 
decreases.  But  this  agrees  with  what  was  already 
known  — namely,  that  the  effect  of  exposure  is  at  first 
too  slight,  then  remains  about  right  for  a time,  then 
is  overdone,  and  finally  reverses  its  action.  Photog- 
raphers call  these  different  stages:  Under-exposure, 


180  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


right  exposure,  over-exposure,  and  reversal.  The  curve 
shows  us  that  the  second  stage,  or  right  exposure,  is 
longer  than  the  others,  and  this  enables  us  to  get  good 
negatives  if  we  can  only  stop  before  over-exposure  be- 
gins. It  is  the  length  of  this  stage  that  gives  plates 
latitude. 

Now  let  us  see  if  we  cannot  guess  at  the  reasons  for 
the  shape  of  the  curve.  At  first  the  light  has  plenty 
of  silver  to  act  on,  and  rapidly  affects  what  is  on 
the  surface ; as  it  goes  deeper  the  light  is  obstructed 
by  the  particles  already  acted  on,  and  also  has  less 
material  to  affect ; so  it  acts  more  and  more  slowly 
until  it  has  been  all  through  the  film  ; then  it  probably 
begins  to  undo  its  work,  causing  reversal. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  diagram  the  lengths  of 
exposure  (marked  on  the  horizontal  line  at  the  bot- 
tom) double  at  each  mark,  while  the  amounts  of  silver 

(on  the  per- 
pe  n d i cul ar 
line)  increase 
regularly  in- 
stead of  doub- 
ling. This  is 
made  so  be- 
cause the  light 
works  more 
and  more 
slowly,  and  has  to  be  allowed  longer  and  longer  times 
to  do  a similar  amount  of  work  on  the  silver.  To 
make  the  horizontal  line  represent  equal  increases  of 
exposure  would  onl}’’  flatten  and  lengthen  the  curve, 
without  changing  its  character,  or  showing  a different 
law  of  action. 


Density  'Jraaspaxwicy  Opacity  Value 


/□ 

/ 

Jo 

to 

203 

too 

too 

3 mu 

X 

/x>00 

1.000 

4l  1 IT 

1 75,006 

and  so  on. 

Diagram  XXIV 

10,000 

aiODERX  DEVELOPING 


181 


But  since  transparency  and  opacity  (the  lack  of 
transparency)  depend  on  the  amounts  of  silver,  we  can 
now  see  just  what  the  effect  of  exposures  will  be  on 
the  transparency  of  our  negatives  at  each  step  of  the 
process.  And  during  the  time  of  right  exposure, 
where  the  silver  is  affected  regularly  in  proportion  to 
exposure,  we  see  that  each  time  the  exposure  is  doubled, 
silver  is  affected  by  one  unit  more. 

If  we  represent  densities  by  little  blocks  of  which 
one  has  such  transparency  that  it  lets  through  tV  of  the 
light,  then  it  is  easy  to  see  that  if  one  block  lets  through 
of  the  light,  two  blocks  will  let  through  and  then 
is  of  that,  or  tJu  of  the  light.  Three  blocks  will  let 
pass  is  of  is  of  is,  or  of  the  light  (Diagram  XXVII). 
So  we  see  that  each  increase  of  a unit  of  destiny,  in- 
creases the  opacity  or  decreases  the  transparency  in 
geometrical  proportion. 

This  will  help  in  understanding  this  chapter. 

Now  we  have  to  see  how  much  the  transparency  of 
the  plate  is  changed  to  opacity  by  this  change  in  the 
amount  of  silver.  The  experiments  showed  that  each 
time  the  silver  affected  by  light  was  increased  by  one 
unit,  the  opacity  was  doubled,  so  long  as  the  exposure 
was  kept  within  that  part  of  its  action  where  the 
curve  is  nearly  straight  — as  it  is  during  the  “right 
exposure  ” period. 

Practically  this  means  that  at  first  the  light  acts 
too  much  on  the  plate  where  the  light  is  strongest, 
and  too  little  where  it  is  weakest ; then,  as  the  action 
of  the  light  slows  down  on  the  best  lighted  parts,  the 
others  catch  up  somewhat  and  act  in  true  proportion 
for  a while,  affecting  the  silver  according  to  their 
strength.  If  we  shut  off  the  light  during  this  time 


182  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  plate  is  rightly  exposed  because  the  silver  has 
been  affected  in  the  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the 
lights  of  the  image.  But  if  we  go  on  further,  the 
strong  lights  become  weaker  in  their  action,  the 
weaker  lights  catch  up,  and  the  plate  is  too  equally 
affected  all  over  — i.e.,  over-exposed  and  spoiled. 

The  effect  of  over-exposure  is  generally  to  give  the 
negative  (on  the  print)  the  appearance  of  lacking  con- 
trast, having  the  high  lights  too  gray,  and  the  dark 
spots  not  dark  enough.  Sometimes  a negative  which 
you  have  over-exposed  will  be  thin  and  transparent,  so 
that  you  may  be  deceived  into  thinking  that  it  has 
been  under-exposed.  But  the  reason  that  it  is  thin  is 
because  you  have  under  developed  it.  Seeing  the 
image  flash  up  quickly  and  the  plate  blacken  over  in 
the  developer,  you  have  probably,  as  most  beginners 
do,  taken  the  plate  out  sooner  than  usual.  The  de- 
veloper, therefore,  has  not  got  below  the  surface  of 
the  emulsion  and  its  deposit  is  thin. 

Such  is  the  general  result  of  the  IIurter-DrifReld 
experiments,  namely,  that  there  is  a time  of  exposure 
during  which  the  strengths  of  the  lights  are  truly  rep- 
resented hy  such  changes  in  the  silver  compound  as  to 
make  the  transparency  of  the  plate,  when  developed, 
vary  in  right  relation  to  the  lights  upon  it. 

The  next  question  was  the  developing  of  the  plate 
so  as  to  make  a negative  that  would  show  just  the 
transparencies  the  lights  had  given  it. 

The  experimenters  developed  plates  that  had  been  un- 
der-exposed, rightly  exposed,  and  over-exposed.  Then 
they  tested  the  amounts  of  silver  darkened  by  the  de- 
veloper. It  proved  that  no  matter  what  was  done,  it 
was  impossible  to  bring  out  in  a plate  any  different 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


183 


relation  of  tones  than  the  one  governed  by  the  ex- 
posure made.  This  they  illustrate  by  supposing  three 
pins  put  through  a piece  of  elastic.  If  you  stretch  the 
elastic,  you  change 
the  distance  between 
the  pins,  but  you  do 
not  change  their  re- 
lation to  one  another. 

So  with  developing. 

You  will  increase  or 
decrease  the  differ- 
ences between  the  Diagbam  XXV 

various  tones,  but  you  will  not  change  their  relation  to 
one  another.  You  may  make  a negative  including  a 
wide  or  a narrow  range  of  tones,  but  you  cannot  make 
wrong  relations  right. 

A simple  illustration  will  make  this  clear  to  every 
photographer.  If  you  take  a negative  and  make  prints 
from  it,  you  can  make  your  prints  very  dark,  or  very 
light  — but  you  do  not  change  the  relation  of  the 
tones  toward  one  another,  unless  you  much  under- 
expose or  over-expose  and  spoil  the  print  entirely.  If 
the  negative  is  a good  one,  too,  there  is  one  right 
amount  of  printing  to  represent  the  natural  scene  as 
truthfully  as  possible. 

So  in  developing.  By  shorter  or  longer  develop- 
ment (or  by  weaker  or  stronger  developer,  which  is 
the  same  thing),  we  may  change  the  negative  from  one 
that  is  thin  to  one  that  is  dense,  or  the  opposite  ; but 
we  cannot  change  the  relation  of  the  tones  one  to  an- 
other equally  all  through  the  series. 

To  put  the  principles  of  the  new  method  in  a few 
words ; Long  development  increases  contrast,  but 


184  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


contrast  only  increases  till  the  development  has  acted 
entirely  through  the  silver  compound,  or  until 
“fogging”  begins.  Warmth  hastens,  cold  delays  de- 
veloping. 

Detail  in  a negative  depends  entirely  on  exposure, 
and  the  developing  cannot  bring  out  more  than  is 
there  already. 

After  developers  begin  to  act,  it  is  useless  to  alter 
them.  Slow  or  fast,  they  will  produce  the  same  re- 
sult. Restraining  a developer  is  not  of  any  use  after 
detail  once  begins  to  show,  since  it  only  makes  de- 
velopment slower  without  making  the  result  different. 

Long  development  by  making  a plate  denser  may  fit 
it  better  for  certain  kinds  of  printing  or  for  enlarging. 
Short  development  may  make  the  plate  softer  in  its 
contrasts,  and  thus  suit  the  subject  better,  or  fit  it  for 
contact  printing. 

From  these  conclusions  come  certain  modern  ways 
of  developing  negatives,  all  dependent  upon  the  time 
of  developing  and  the  temperature  of  the  developer 
used. 

One  of  these  is  known  as  the  factorial  system.  It 
' was  devised  by  Alfred  Watkins,  and  is  based  on  the 
observation  that  the  time  for  correct  development  is 
always  to  be  found  by  noting  how  long,  after  a plate 
goes  into  the  developer,  it  takes  to  show  a trace  of  the 
image’s  appearance. 

This  differs  greatly  according  to  the  developer  used, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  solution.  But  whatever 
the  period  may  be,  the  time  of  complete  development  is 
a certain  number  of  these  periods.  Thus  if  a trace  of 
the  image  appears  in  18  seconds,  and  the  developer  is 
(say)  metol,  then  if  we  multiply  by  30,  we  shall  have 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


185 


30X18=540  seconds  as  the  correct  time  to  develop 
that  negative.  This  number  30  is  metol’s  “ factor  ” 
always.  Had  we  used  rodinal  (another  developer)  the 
factor  would  have  always  been  40. 

If  the  solutions  had  been  stronger  or  warmer,  the 
image  trace  might  have  shown  more  quickly ; but  that 
changes  the  total  time  of  development  without  chang- 
ing the  factor. 

In  other  words,  by  using  the  factor  we  need  not 
think  of  the  temperature  or  strength  of  developer. 
These  have  their  effect  in  changing  the  time  of  ap- 
pearance, and  affect  the  development  in  that  way. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  tank  or  machine  developing, 
we  fix  the  time  and  the  temperature  beforehand,  and 
use  the  developer  that  is  directed.  Consequently  we 
do  not  need  to  know  the  factor,  which  we  must  know 
if  we  do  not  fix  time  and  temperature. 

All  this  comes  down  to  a few  simple  ideas,  which 
we  may  easily  remember.  First,  development  is  a 
scientific  matter  that  depends  on  chemical  facts. 
These  facts  are  the  exposure,  which  determines  the 
question  of  how  the  negative  is  to  represent  the  image 
received ; the  developer  used,  the  temperature  of  the 
solution,  the  time  for  which  it  is  applied. 

If  you  use  the  factor  system,  you  simply  need  to 
know  how  quickly  the  action  of  the  developer  first 
shows,  and  then  multiply  by  the  factor  given  to  know 
when  to  stop. 

If  you  use  the  tank  system,  you  must  arrange  the 
time  according  to  the  temperature  and  strength  of  the 
developer  used,  and  then  apply  it  to  your  plates  ac- 
cording to  rule. 

If  you  use  the  old  system,  you  must  keep  your  eye 


T 


186  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 

on  the  plate  as  it  develops,  and  do  your  best  to  guess 
when  to  stop.  And  this  is  not  said  sneeringly,  for  it 
is  the  plain  truth,  since  by  the  old  methods  success 
was  a matter  of  experience  and  individual  judgment. 

One  regrets  that  the  old  wa}'^  is  so  difficult,  for  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  images  come  out  was  very  great, 
and  very  educational.  But  it  seems  undoubtedly 
proved  that  the  modern  methods  produce  better  nega- 
tives, whatever  the  exposures  may  have  been.  In  fact 
it  is  claimed  that  the  uniform  developing  is  best 
whether  you  get  exposure  right  or  not,  bringing  out 
all  there  is  in  the  negative,  and  making  what  there  is 
in  it  truer  to  nature’s  scale  of  lighting  than  it  can  be 
made  by  the  most  solicitous  tinkering. 

As  to  the  choice  of  a developer,  the  experts  agree 
that  it  is  merely  a matter  of  whether  one  prefers  a 
quick  or  slow  development.  Pyro,  however,  gives  the 
negative  a slight  yellow  or  brown  tinge  at  times,  and 
thus  acts  as  a stain  as  well  as  a developer.  Bromide 
added  beforehand,  keeps  the  image  from  appearing  so 
quickly,  but  otherwise  does  not  change  the  result  ma- 
terially. 

In  the  factorial  system  two  developers,  pyro  and 
amidol  have  different  factors  when  differently  mixed 
in  solutions  ; but  these  things  are  given  in  the  tables. 

It  should  be  said  that  not  all  photographers  are 
ready  to  accept  the  new  conclusions ; but  the  evidence 
for  and  against  the  theory  has  been  most  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  the  great  weight  of  opinion  is  in  favour  of 
the  new  as  against  the  old.  At  all  events,  young 
photographers  cannot  fail  to  welcome  a method  that 
will  enable  them  to  secure  good  results  by  regular 
rule,  instead  of  one  that  says  to  them,  “ It  is  all  a mat- 


MODERN  DEVELOPING 


187 


ter  of  long  experience.  Just  keep  on  spoiling  plates, 
and  after  a while  you  ’ll  probably  get  the  hang  of  the 
thing.”  That  was  not  encouraging  to  say  the  least ! 

The  practical  ways  of  applying  the  new  methods  are 
seen  in  the  developing  machines  and  tanks,  that  are 
filled  with  the  solution  of  developer,  and  then  moved 
to  keep  the  solution  in  motion  for  a given  time.  But 
one  word  of  warning  : If  you  use  the  new  methods, 

remember  that  they  are  scientific,  and  you  must  fol- 
low the  directions  as  exactly  as  possible.  You  must 
always  have  fresh  developer,  a thermometer,  and  an 
accurate  time-measure.  Otherwise  you  will  do  better 
to  stick  to  the  old  methods  where  you  can  keep  your 
eye  on  your  plate. 


CHAPTER  XYII 


FURTHER  REMARKS  OK  DEVELOPIKG  — AFTER 
TREATMENT  OF  NEGATIVES 

Value  of  correct  methods  — Following  directions  — Rocking  in  devel- 
opment — Development  without  rocking  — A few  notes  on  devel- 
opers— Pyro — Metol — Hydrochinon  — Getting  familiar  with 
one  or  two  — Fixing  safely  — How  to  wash  and  to  dry  negatives  — 
The  question  of  varnishing  — Defects  upon  inspection  — Weak 
and  strong  negatives  — Fog  — Intensifying  and  reducing  : why 
not  advised  — The  tabloid  system  — Local  reduction  — Retouch- 
ing — Spotting  out  — Destroying  negatives  — Preserving  nega- 
tives. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  whole  purpose  of 
correct  methods  in  development  is  to  get  correct  neg- 
atives, truly  representing  nature.  Consequently,  if 
you  do  not  want  correct  negatives,  these  methods  are 
to  be  changed  accordingly.  Thus,  for  example,  if  )’^ou 
wish  to  copy  a line  drawing,  you  will  want  black 
lines  — great  contrast ; and  you  will  therefore  develop 
all  the  contrast  possible.  Or  if  you  want  a figure  to 
stand  out  against  a soft  background,  you  may  help 
that  effect  by  developing  the  plate  in  that  place 
locally  ; in  which  case  you  might  prefer  the  old  style 
of  developing.  But  if  you  know  how  to  develop  cor- 
rectly, it  is  easier  to  make  these  changes  since  you  are 
working  from  an  exact  starting-point.  Likewise,  you 
may  develop  to  suit  some  particular  style  of  printing, 
or  to  suit  your  subject.  This  can  be  done  by  chang- 
ing the  factor  in  the  factorial  system,  remembering 

188 


FURTHER  REMARKS  OK  DEVELOPING  189 


that  long  developing  increases  contrast  and  gives  den- 
sity, while  shorter  developing  gives  softness,  and  a 
thin  negative  that  prints  more  quickly. 

Every  package  of  supplies  — chemicals,  plates, 
papers,  and  all  apparatus  — tanks,  printing  devices, 
— and  the  many  handbooks  — photographic  booklets, 
almanacs,  annuals  and  so  on,  will  supply  you  with 
plenty  of  special  advice.  The  main  object  of  this 
book  is  to  give  such  a general  understanding  of  the 
principles  that  you  will  be  able  to  judge  for  yourself 
what  is  important,  and  to  see  reasons  for  the  rules 
given. 

Naturally  enough  the  makers  of  plates,  films,  and 
chemicals  give  the  best  methods  for  using  their  own 
goods ; and  it  is  advised  that  you  note  carefully  the 
directions  given,  even  if  you  find  reason  for  changing 
them  in  certain  particulars.  The  manufacturers  must 
give  directions  that  will  suit  even  the  most  ignorant 
beginners,  and  so  sometimes  err  on  the  side  of  over- 
caution. Besides,  you  will  wish  to  make  your  own 
solutions,  and  so  on,  or  to  vary  the  amounts  given ; 
and  this  must  be  done  with  knowledge. 

In  developing,  nearly  all  the  handbooks  advise  the 
worker  to  rock  the  tray  while  the  plate  is  in  the 
developer.  As  a rule  this  is  wise,  as  it  keeps  new 
solution  applying  to  each  part  of  the  plate,  dislodges 
any  little  impurities  that  might  settle  on  its  surface, 
keeps  the  developer  evenly  mixed,  and  also  removes 
the  chemical  products  of  development  from  the  plate 
surface.  Consequently,  most  workers  adopt  the  rule. 
But  there  are  advantages  in  not  rocking  the  tray,  if 
you  understand  the  matter.  When  light  strikes  the 
emulsion  on  an  unexposed  plate,  which  contains 


190  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOURG  PEOPLE 


silver-bromide,  the  compound  is  broken  up,  and 
bromine  set  free.  This  bromine  in  contact  with  an 
alkaline  developer,  forms  a bromide  again  — which  is 
a restrainer  of  the  developer.  Rocking  the  plate 
mixes  the  bromide  all  through  the  solution.  But  if 
the  tray  be  left  motionless,  the  bromide  remains 
where  formed,  and  is  most  plentiful  where  the  lights 
are  strongest.  Consequently  it  tends  to  restrain  the 
developing  of  the  higher  lights,  and  thus  give  the 
duller  lights  time  to  develop  more  evenly,  producing 
soft  negatives. 

The  method  used  is  to  put  a plate  into  a very  weak 
developer  in  a pan,  and  give  a long  slow  motionless 
development  under  a cover  that  can  be  raised  without 
jarring  the  tray  — as  a big  pasteboard  box-cover 
which  will  not  touch  the  tray,  but  rest  on  the  table 
around  it.  After  about  half  an  hour,  the  plate  may 
be  examined  in  the  tray,  but  must  not  be  moved  until 
development  is  done. 

This  method  is  said  to  make  beautifully  soft  nega- 
tives, but  the  developing  solution  should  be  highly 
diluted,  as  in  what  is  called  “ stand  development,”  say 
with  six  times  the  usual  amount  of  water.  And  this 
sort  of  developing  is  of  course  expert  work. 

As  to  the  choice  of  developers,  it  has  already  been 
noticed  that  modern  workers  find  this  really  a matter 
of  their  convenience.  The  most  frequent  developers 
are  pyro,  metol,  hydrochinon,  eikonogen,  and  less 
often  used  are  amidol,  ortol,  tolidol,  rodinal.  There 
are  so  many  that  only  professional  treatises  attempt 
to  describe  them  all,  and  no  amateur  is  likely  to  use 
. more  than  a very  few  of  the  best  known. 

Pyro,  perhaps  the  one  entitled  to  first  place,  all 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  DEVELOPING  191 


things  considered,  is  a feathery  white  powder,  a 
strong  poison,  with  a tendency  to  stain  your  fingers 
and  your  plates  a brown  shade.  The  action  of  pyro, 
according  to  the  experts,  differs  greatly  according  to 
its  strength  in  solutions,  as  to  which  a table  is  given  in 
the  chapter  of  formulae.  Here  we  will  say  only  that 
its  tendency  to  stain  is  prevented  by  mixing  it  with 
sulphite  of  soda.  Pyro,  properly  managed,  will  do 
almost  anything  in  developing  plates,  but  the  impor- 
tant thing  is  to  be  sure  to  get  enough  density  in  your 
plates  by  long  enough  developing. 

Metol  is  an  excellent  developer,  with  the  very 
serious  fault  that  it  poisons  the  skin  of  some  persons, 
the  effects  differing  with  the  person  and  the  con- 
ditions. Most  workers  who  take  pains  to  keep  their 
fingers  clear  of  the  solution  will  escape  unpleasant  re- 
sults, but  if  you  find  your  fingers  are  injured  by  it,  it 
will  be  wise  to  choose  another  developer. 

Hydrochinon  (or  hydroquinone ) seems  to  be  used 
most  often  with  other  developers.  It  is  often  called 
“quinol,”  as  in  the  “ metol-quinol  ” compounds,  the 
well  known  “ M-Q  ” tubes  containing  this.  Like 
pyro,  it  brings  out  the  surface  image  quickly,  and  you 
should  not  let  this  induce  you  to  shorten  development 
for  density.  The  use  of  metol-quinol  is  especially 
recommended  by  the  makers  of  gaslight  and  other  de- 
veloping papers,  while  pyro  is  very  apt  to  stain,  if 
used  for  making  prints. 

The  best  course  in  regard  to  the  use  of  developers 
is  to  make  a choice  of  one  or  two,  and  then  study  the 
books  about  these  until  you  know  all  its  characteris- 
tics. Now  it  is  well  established  that  the  same  results, 
generally  speaking,  may  be  obtained  from  each  of 


192  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


them,  and  there  is  no  excuse  for  changing  from  one  to 
another  in  the  hope  of  special  advantages.  By  using 
the  same  developer  under  different  circumstances  you 
will  learn  to  take  advantage  of  all  its  good  qualities, 
and  to  adapt  it  to  your  changing  needs. 

But  your  care  with  the  developing  will  avail  little 
unless  you  fix  your  negatives  thoroughly  and  rightly. 
Yet  the  matter  of  correct  fixing  is  not  difficult.  With 
plates,  you  will  use  the  regular  “ Hypo  ” bath  (hypo 
being  an  abbreviation  of  “ hyposulphite  of  soda,”  for 
which  theright  namechemically  issotZiwm  thiosulphate), 
either  plain,  or  made  acid  by  the  addition  of  alum, 
acetic  acid,  and  sodium  sulphite  — the  last  being 
added  to  keep  the  sulphur  from  being  precipitated. 

The  only  safe  rule  is  to  leave  the  negative  in  the 
hypo  bath  until  all  the  white  disappears,  and  then  as 
long  again.  But  a few  rules  will  help  to  make  your 
fixing  right.  Use  fresh  hypo,  it  is  very  cheap ; rinse 
plates  clear  of  developer  before  fixing;  slight  rocking 
helps  fixing ; the  plain  h}q30  bath  becomes  discoloured, 
the  acid  bath  remains  clear  till  exhausted ; keep  hypo 
solution  cool ; do  not  let  films  stick  together  in  the 
fixing  bath. 

After  fixing,  wash  out  all  hypo  by  rinsing  and 
draining  your  plates  over  and  over,  say  eight  or  ten 
times.  The  draining  is  quite  as  important  as  the  rins- 
ing. This  is  done  by  putting  the  plate  into  a tray  of 
clean  water  for  about  two  minutes,  then  setting  it  up 
to  drain  while  you  pour  out  the  water  and  wash  out 
the  tray.  Then  another  two  minutes  soaking,  and 
another  draining,  and  so  on.  In  running  water,  the 
hypo  will  be  washed  out  thoroughly  in  from  one  to 
two  hours.  This  is  a bore,  of  course,  but  it  is  the  only 


Couttesy  of  Americiin  Pliolograpliy 


“ SuN’i.iGHT  ON  Surf” 

All  effective  jiictuie  made  from  a very  simple  scene.  The  composition 
and  the  lighting  give  it  interest.  It  is  proof  that  tlie  rule  “not  to  ])hoto- 
grajih  against  the  sun  ” may  often  he  broken  to  advantage.  Dark  print- 
ing would  have  made  tliis  a “ moonlight  ” picture. 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  DEVELOPING  193 


way  to  be  sure  your  negative  will  not  spoil.  Films 
may  be  pinned  to  a board,  and  floated  face  downward 
in  a bath.  H^^po  is  heavier  than  water,  and  will  be 
removed  by  its  weight. 

The  drying  of  negatives  should  be  done  as  quickly 
as  possible  withoxd  heat,  since  the  grain  of  the  image 
coarsens  slightly  by  long  drying.  A current  of  dry 
air  is  the  best  drier,  and  an  electric-fan  is  an  excellent 
helper.  Do  not  put  drying  plates  or  films  too  near  one 
another,  as  this  tends  to  delay  drying.  Keep  them  in 
an  even  temperature  if  possible.  For  artificial  drying, 
plates  may  be  mopped  with  soft  cotton,  immersed  in 
alcohol  for  three  or  four  minutes,  and  then  taken  out 
after  the  alcohol  has  replaced  the  water.  Spirit  alco- 
hol is  best  for  this  purpose.  After  the  alcohol  bath 
the  plate  will  dry  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  This 
method  cannot  be  used  for  films,  and  is  not  so  good  as 
ordinary  drying  for  plates,  being,  as  Bayley’s  “ Com- 
plete Photographer  ” says,  not  so  clean  looking. 

The  same  authority  advises  against  varnishing  nega- 
tives, as  the  process  is  a bother,  seldom  necessary,  and 
prevents  the  subsequent  working  upon  the  negative  to 
reduce  or  to  intensify  it,  which  may  save  an  otherwise 
faulty  negative.  When  your  negative  is  dry,  you  will 
for  the  first  time  be  able  to  know  how  far  successful 
your  work  has  been.  But  this  can  be  tested  certainly 
only  by  making  a print,  since  the  eye-judgment  of 
negatives  is  often  somewhat  misleading,  the  trans- 
parency of  the  plate  to  the  eye  and  to  the  printing 
light  being  different  things. 

But  certain  matters  will  make  themselves  evident  at 
once,  such  defects  as  clear  or  dark  spots  and  streaks, 
mottling  and  blotches.  Most  of  these  come  from  lack 


194  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


of  cleanliness,  such  as  dust  and  impurities,  and  a list 
of  them  will  be  found  in  the  last  chapter.  General 
weakness  of  the  negative  may  come  from  under-ex- 
posure or  under-development,  or  weak  lighting  may 
be  the  cause.  Under-exposure  is  known  by  lack  of 
detail  in  the  shadows,  or  absence  of  all  except  highly 
lighted  portions  of  the  picture ; under-development  by 
general  lack  of  strength  throughout;  weak  lighting 
by  lack  of  strength  in  the  highest  lights  though  there 
is  detail  in  the  shadows.  But  a weak  negative  with 
detail  in  shadows  may  also  be  caused  by  over-ex- 
posure, with  under-development,  or  development  in  too 
cold  or  too  weak  a developer.  The  trouble  comes 
usually  from  being  afraid  of  developing  too  long,  if 
the  image  comes  up  quickly  in  the  developer,  or  from 
being  afraid  to  stop  development  soon  enough  if  the 
image  has  come  up  slowly.  Remember  that  the  same 
development  is  best  for  under,  correct,  or  over-ex- 
posure. It  will  in  the  first  case  bring  out  all  there  is 
in  the  plate ; in  the  second  case,  it  is  of  course  right ; 
in  the  third,  it  may  increase  density  and  make  slow- 
printing  negatives,  but  it  will  give  you  the  detail  and 
contrast  you  will  otherwise  lack. 

Too  much  contrast  in  a negative  if  not  caused  by  an 
exposure  so  short  as  to  give  only  higher  lights,  may 
come  from  harsh  lighting  with  under-developing,  or 
from  short  exposure  with  too  long  a development, 
that  makes  the  high  lights  too  dense. 

Fog,  or  a general  dullness  of  the  negative,  may  come 
from  too  much  light  in  the  dark  room,  from  too  long 
a development  or  too  warm  a developer  — both  of  which 
will  affect  the  white  edges  of  the  plate  as  well  as  the 
picture ; or  from  light  in  the  camera  leaking  through 


FURTHER  REMARKS  ON  DEVELOPING  195 


some  opening,  or  dififused  by  a dusty  lens,  which  will 
not  fog  these  edges.  With  cleanliness,  fresh  cool  de- 
veloper, proper  lighting  in  the  dark  room,  a light-tight 
camera  and  holders,  and  correct  developing,  there  should 
be  no  sign  of  fogging. 

To  remedy  weakness  in  a negative,  the  process  called 
intensification  may  be  used,  though  no  after-process 
is  likely  to  make  a poor  negative  as  good  as  a good 
one  would  have  been.  There  are  a number  of  formulae 
given,  many  of  them  requiring  the  use  of  chemicals 
that  are  dangerous  to  handle.  The  intensifier  given 
by  the  Seed  Dryplate  Company  is  as  follows : 

INTENSIFIEE 

After  fixing  and  washing  tboronghly,  soak  in 


Mercuric  Chloride 120  gr. 

Potas-sium  Bromide 120  gr. 

Water 12  oz 


When  the  image  is  white  throughout,  wash  thoroughly  and  place  in 
Sodium  Sulphite,  1 to  8 of  water.  The  darkening  action  takes  place 
steadily  and  slowly.  Wash  fifteen  minutes  in  running  water  to  free 
from  Sulphite. 

There  are  also  sold  preparations  for  the  purpose  by 
various  dealers,  and  it  will  be  best  to  use  these  follow- 
ing directions  very  carefully  because  the  processes  are 
delicate. 

When  a negative  is  too  dense,  the  process  of  “re- 
ducing” is  resorted  to,  and  for  this  the  following 
formula  is  given  by  the  Seed  Company  : 

Redccee 

A B 

Water loz.  Water 32  oz. 

Red  Pruasiate  of  Potash  . . 15  gr.  Hypo 1 oz. 

Add  A to  B.  Immerse  plate  in  solution  and  watch  closely.  Action 


▼ 


196  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUIsG  PEOPLE 

is  best  seen  when  solution  is  poured  over  negative  in  a white  tray. 
Remove  plate  from  solution  when  reduction  is  quite  complete.  After 
reduction  wash  thoroughly. 

Where  contrast  is  too  great,  a reducer  that  will  act 
most  strongly  upon  the  higher  lights  is  required. 
From  the  same  source  as  the  two  preceding  formula? 
comes  this  one : 

To  Reduce  Contrasty  Negatives 
A 

Permanganate  of  Potash  . . 24  gr.  Water 1 oz. 

B 

Sulphuric  Acid  . . . .24  drops.  Water 1 oz. 

For  use 

1 dram A 

2 dram B 

8 oz Water 

This  solutiou  works  rapidly,  reducing  the  high  lights  without  ap- 
parent reduction  of  shadows. 

Those  amateurs  who  desire  to  go  fully  into  the  sub- 
ject of  intensifying  and  reducing  are  advised  to  get 
the  Photo-Miniature,  No.  74,  called  “ Intensifying  and 
Reducing  Negatives.”  The  subject  is  one  requiring 
more  space  than  can  be  given  to  it  except  in  special 
treatises,  especially  as  the  kind  of  process  to  be  used  in 
any  given  case  depends  much  on  the  particular  neg- 
ative. It  is  rarely  that  the  young  photographer  will 
have  negatives  that  are  both  defective  and  valuable 
enough  to  be  worth  the  trouble  of  either  of  these 
treatments ; and  the  chemicals  emplo}’ed  are  not  such 
as  may  be  handled  carelessly.  Perhaps  the  simplest 
way  of  meeting  the  difficulty  will  be  to  use  the 
“ Tabloid  ” chemicals  made  by  Burroughs,  Wellcome 


FUETHER  REMARKS  OK  DEVELOPING 


197 


ik  Company,  New  York  City.  These  come  in  little 
hard  tablets  securely  sealed  in  glass  tubes,  and  after 
the  solutions  for  intensifying  and  reducing  have  been 
used,  they  can  be  thrown  away,  and  the  graduate  and 
trays  thoroughly  rinsed. 

If  a portion  of  the  negative  is  a little  too  dense,  it 
can  be  somewhat  reduced  by  rubbing  in  a circular  mo- 
tion with  a tuft  of  absorbent  cotton  — a little  box  of 
which  costs  a few  cents  at  a druggist’s  — dipped  in 
alcohol.  If  the  negative  is  too  thin  in  portions,  it  is 
sometimes  remedied  by  attaching  a bit  of  damp  tissue 
paper  at  the  back  to  the  four  corners  or  edges  with 
paste,  and  then  after  it  is  dry  strengthening  the  thin 
parts  by  shading  lightly  with  a pencil,  or  a thin  wash 
of  red  water-colour,  or  by  “ retouching  ” on  the  film- 
side.  To  retouch  the  negative,  is  an  art  in  itself,  but 
it  can  do  no  harm  to  know  enough  of  the  matter  to 
remedy  plain  defects  in  your  negatives.  A retouch- 
ing varnish  may  be  made  by  dissolving  60  grains  of 
resin  in  2 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  a bit  of  soft 
rag  just  touched  to  this  may  be  gently  rubbed  on  the 
film  where  you  wish  to  work.  Then  with  a pencil, 
very  sharply  pointed,  lightly  mark  where  you  wish  to 
increase  the  density  of  the  negative — or,  in  other 
words,  to  lighten  the  print.  Practice  on  an  old  neg- 
ative first,  and  be  content  to  remedy  the  worst  faults 
first,  taking  up  others  as  you  find  you  have  the  skill. 

Transparent  spots,  “ pin-holes,”  or  scratches  on  the 
negative  made  by  careless  handling,  may  be  remedied 
by  painting  them  out  with  one  of  the  various  brands 
of  “spotting  out”  medium,  or  “opaque”  — a pasty 
material,  usually  red  in  colour.  This,  of  course, 
makes  a white  spot  on  your  print ; but  this  is  far  bet- 


I 


198  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


ter  than  a hlack  spot,  for  you  can  then,  with  dilute 
India  ink  and  a brush,  or  perhaps  with  only  a pencil, 
touch  up  your  print  so  that  the  spot  will  not  show. 
With  P.  O.  P.  you  will  not  be  able  to  do  much  by  this 
method,  but  on  gray  papers  it  is  very  satisfactory  ; on 
prints  toned  to  various  colours  you  have  of  course  to 
match  the  colour  with  paints. 

It  may  not  be  known  to  every  amateur  that  when 
you  wish  to  destroy  a negative,  there  is  nothing 
simpler  than  to  put  it  into  very  hot  water,  which  will 
melt  the  film,  and  leave  clear  glass.  As  to  celluloid 
films,  though  they  can  be  burned,  this  should  be  done 
very  cautiously,  a single  one  at  a time,  as  they  burn 
almost  explosively. 

To  keep  glass  negatives,  the  best  way  is  to  put  them 
into  the  partitioned  boxes  made  for  the  purpose.  If 
you  do  not  care  to  do  this,  keep  them  upright  in  tin 
cracker  boxes,  or  in  the  pasteboard  boxes  in  which 
the  plates  come.  Lay  them  film-side  to  film-side  with 
clean  bits  of  wrapping  paper  between  each  pair,  and 
in  a dry  place.  Manila  envelopes  are  sold  in  plate 
sizes  by  all  dealers  in  camera  supplies,  and  these  are  ex- 
cellent and  handy.  Examine  them  now  and  then,  and 
remove  any  that  may  spoil.  If  a little  hypo  should 
crystallize  on  the  surface,  and  the  plate  is  found  in 
time,  it  may  sometimes  be  saved  by  a thorough 
washing,  as  at  first,  and  re-dr3nng. 

With  a needle  set  in  a holder,  j’ou  may  scratch  at 
the  edge  of  the  film  any  date  or  number  or  inscrip- 
tion. Film  negatives  are  by  far  the  best  for  storing 
away. 


CHAPTEE  iVUI 

PRDTTDsG  — 2irrHOD6  AJSD  PEOCE^ES 


The  prist  the  otijecs  — Cbaiee  ot  proceig  — Wrrim  are  per^s- 
Dent  — £jae  at  vwkia^  — ysmbw  at  proefawg  — Wlaz  uter  de- 
pexad  on  — Silrer  pspers  — Plais  aalad  psper  — AHwasczi-cacsed 
pspen  — G«lsds«-ec»sed  psper  — How  titer  war:  pare  — Bnaiide 
psper.  for  priss  aod  fnUfz«ae=g  — Gskight  papec!  — T!tdr 
dtoesB  for  azssieur  work  — Papers  tcai  depend  am.  iron  aala  — 
Blue  prisu  — PlstinGCrpes — JLdTaz^a^e  at  the  p>sjr-*;iai  proces 
— Tbe  Ksliitrpe  — Bidirwasse  papers  — The  Carbon  process  — 
Berersu^  tfae  hsafe  — Gaai  biehmnaaie  process  — The  OaatwBie 
process  — Which  tbe  asa^enr  is  likefr  w sae  — Adrassn  at 
cfafxwtng  tbe  tiapkcst — Vadse  d banrVrifa  and  pbcocfrapcie 
periodical 

As  the  negative  does  not  represent  natnre,  it  is  onlr 
a step  to  the  print,  and  only  good  j^tonallj  as 
it  will  make  a satisfactorr  print.  Soi  when  we 
have  carefully  avoided  all  the  rocks  and  the  shoals 
that  snrroand  oar  coarse  from  nature  to  negatiTe,  we 
have  onlv  reached  the  beginning  of  another  channel, 
and  perhaps  one  more  difficult  to  navigate  — the  chan- 
nel leading  from  negative  to  print. 

Bai  there  is  a difference.  There  are  many  courses 
leading  from  negative  to  prints,  and  accordingly  we 
have  to  make  a choice  among  them,  a clxMce  that 
should  be  largelv  decided  br  the  sort  of  negauve  we 
have  secured,  and  also  by  the  sort  of  print  we  wish  to 
make  from  it.  The  two  depend  somewhat  upon  one 
another.  Some  negatives  are  bett«  fitted  for  one  kind 
of  paper  and  process,  others  that  might  fail  with  one 

199 


200  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOE  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


paper  will  give  good  prints  with  another.  Yet  in 
general  it  is  true  that  with  a clear,  strong  negative 
you  may  get  a good  print  whatever  the  process,  while 
a weak  negative,  though  doing  better  under  one  proc- 
ess than  another,  will  require  shrewd,  skillful  hand- 
ling with  any. 

A question  requiring  consideration  also  is  that  of 
permanency.  If  your  picture  is  to  be  kept  for  years, 
you  must  choose  the  sort  of  print  that  will  surely 
last  — and  of  these  there  are  not  an  embarrassing 
number,  though  most  prints  if  carefully  and  cleanly 
made  will  last  for  many  years.  Still  another  thing  to 
think  about  is  the  question  of  ease  and  simplicity  in 
working,  especially  because  simple  processes  are  most 
likely  to  be  carefully  and  correctly  carried  out. 

Even  without  the  minor  modifications,  there  are 
a dozen  ways  of  making  prints,  and  each  has  its  pur- 
poses and  advantages.  This  whole  chapter  could 
easily  be  devoted  to  almost  any  one  of  them  without 
exhausting  its  interest.  Consequently  we  cannot  hope 
to  do  more  than  give  you  a first  acquaintance  with 
each,  to  help  you  to  choose  among  them. 

Five  of  the  best  known  processes  make  use  of  silver, 
three  of  iron,  and  the  other  three  of  bichromate  of 
potassium. 

The  papers  depending  for  their  action  on  silver  con- 
sist of  paper  coated  with  a chloride  (or  iodide)  of  silver 
held  in  a film  of  gelatine,  of  collodion,  or  in  the  paper 
itself.  The  last  of  these  three,  known  as  plain  salted 
paper  or  plain  silver  paper  is  the  earliest  of  them,  and 
the  simplest.  It  is  usually  made  b}'  the  amateur  for 
himself  since  it  is  merely  a matter  of  coating  the  paper 
(any  suitable  sort)  with  solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver 


PRIXTIKG  — METHODS  AND  PROCESSES  201 


and  chloride  of  sodium,  or  ordinary  salt.  A formula 
for  it  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  of  processes.  If  an 
iodide  of  silver  be  made,  the  paper  will  need  develop- 
ing. With  the  chloride  of  silver,  it  can  be  printed 
readily,  and  toned  with  gold  or  platinum,  like  the 
papers  bought  ready-made.  The  process  is  simple, 
cheap,  and  said  to  be  reasonably  permanent  — an  ex- 
cellent process  for  those  who  do  not  live  near  supply 
houses. 

If  the  same  chemicals  are  used  with  an  albumen 
(white  of  egg)  coated  paper,  there  is  a gain  in  detail, 
a glossy  instead  of  a dull  or  “ matt  ” surface,  and  the 
paper  keeps  better  while  unprinted.  The  albumen 
also  keeps  the  image  at  the  surface,  whereas  in  the 
plain  salted  paper  it  sinks  into  the  fibre.  Albumen 
papers  may  also  be  prepared  with  a dull  surface.  The 
old-fashioned  family  photographs  were  mostly  on 
albumen  papers.  The  process  of  making  the  albumen 
prints  is  longer  than  some  more  modern  methods  and 
has  no  great  advantage,  either  in  brilliancy  or  keeping 
qualities. 

Substituting  gelatine  for  the  albumen  to  give  sur- 
face, but  using  still  the  same  chloride  of  silver,  we  get 
the  modern  “ printing-out  papers  ” (often  abbreviated 
to  P.  O.  P.),  though  the  Photo-Miniature,  No.  78,  tells 
us  that  the  surface  of  the  paper  is  first  prepared  with 
baryta  to  give  smoothness.  If  collodion  be  used  for 
holding  the  silver  chloride,  we  have  another  variety  — 
the  two  being  “ gelatino-chloride,”  and  “ collodio- 
chloride.”  An  example  of  the  first  is  “ Solio,”  of  the 
second,  “ Aristo,  Jr.”  These  papers  are  in  general  use 
where  fine  detail  is  required,  especially  in  photographs 
meant  for  reproduction,  as  plates,  and  for  taking  first 


202  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


proofs  of  negatives.  In  order  to  be  permanent  tbey 
must  be  carefully  made  and  thoroughly  washed,  and 
even  then  their  lasting  may  be  doubtful,  and  they  are 
not  used  where  permanency  for  years  is  of  great  mo- 
ment. Usually  glossy,  they  are  also  made  with  the 
matt  surface,  and  may  be  toned  with  gold  or  platinum 
so  as  to  give  brownish  or  blackish  tones. 

Bay  ley  in  “ The  Complete  Photographer”  says,  “ Al- 
bumenized  paper  is  practically  obsolete.  Gelatino- 
chloride  paper  must  be  dealt  with  at  only  ordinary 
temperatures  (for  fear  it  will  blister  or  melt).  . . . 

With  collodion  P.  O.  P.  . . . the  film  is  quite 
insoluble,  hot  or  cold.” 

Two  of  the  kinds  of  papers  using  silver  compounds 
require  developing.  One  of  these  is  “ bromide  ” paper, 
coated  with  gelatine  — with  bromide  of  silver  much 
like  that  used  in  making  dry-plates,  and  needing  very 
similar  treatment.  Like  the  plate,  bromide  paper 
shows  ordinarily  no  trace  of  the  image  until  the  de- 
veloper brings  it  out ; and  it  must  be  handled  in  ruby 
light  only  except  when  exposed  for  printing.  In  fact, 
it  may  be  considered  a “dry-plate”  on  paper.  It 
prints  not  only  in  contact  with  the  negative,  but  also 
is  used  in  making  enlargements,  the  image  being  pro- 
jected on  it  from  a lantern  or  from  a camera  used  as  a 
lantern,  or  by  letting  outdoor  light  pass  through  an 
opening  and  then  through  a negative  so  as  to  project 
the  picture  on  the  paper.  There  are  various  methods 
of  developing  and  toning,  so  as  to  give  different 
colours  and  shades  to  bromide  paper,  and  the  prints 
(carefully  made)  are  said  to  be  permanent. 

The  other  class  of  developing  silver  papers  is  what 
is  known  as  “gaslight”  papers,  such  as  Yelox  and 


Photog!  jph  hy  Mr.  Hciny  E.  Corke 


A “ FiREUGIIT  ” PlIOTOGRAPH 

Made  by  daylight  entering  through  a low  opening. 
(See  note  in  .\p]iendix.)  The  portraits  of  persons  liglit- 
ing  pipes,  often  seen,  are  made  in  a similar  way. 


PRINTING  — METHODS  AND  PROCESSES  203 


Cyko.  The  Photo-Miniature  already  quoted  and  an- 
other of  the  series  call  these  “ washed  chloride  ” pa- 
pers. “ Velox  ” was  the  first  of  them,  being  invented 
by  Dr.  Leo  Baekeland  in  1894,  but  the  exact  process 
of  manufacture  is  a secret.  They  are  very  sensitive  to 
light  in  printing,  and  yet  can  be  safely  handled  in 
subdued  daylight  or  in  artificial  yellow  light,  as  if  they 
were  very  slow  dry-plates.  This  style  of  paper  seems 
especially  suited  to  the  amateur,  being  simple,  con- 
venient, and  being  made  in  many  varieties  of  surface, 
substance,  and  style.  The  prints,  rightly  made,  seem 
to  be  permanent  as  a rule,  but  this  is  not  absolutely 
established,  since  there  has  hardly  been  time.  Cer- 
tainly, they  are  safe  enough  for  all  average  amateur 
work,  and  make  a beautiful  variety  of  prints. 

Three  kinds  of  papers  depend  for  their  sensitiveness 
upon  the  ferric  oxalate  — a salt  of  iron.  The  best 
known  of  these  is  the  “ blue-print,”  which,  except  for 
its  colour,  would  come  into  universal  favour.  The 
result  of  mere  printing  and  washing  is  permanent  and 
unchanging,  so  the  prints  are  most  excellent  for  filing 
away  as  records,  either  of  your  negatives,  or  of  the 
facts  they  contain.  A very  few  subjects  suit  the 
colour  — sea-pictures,  for  example;  but  there  is  some- 
thing about  the  tint  that  is  unpleasant  to  the  eye  if 
seen  often  or  too  much  at  one  time.  There  are 
methods  of  changing  the  colour,  but  they  are  said  to 
be  uncertain  in  result  and  in  permanency.  Besides, 
when  you  make  the  blue-printing  a troublesome,  long 
process,  you  might  better  use  a better  method. 

The  Platinotype  is  also,  at  the  beginning,  an  iron 
paper.  The  paper  is  coated  with  ferric  oxalate,  and  a 
salt  of  platinum.  After  printing  till  the  image  shows 


204  THOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


faintly,  the  paper  is  treated  in  a warm  solution  of 
oxalate  of  potash  which  causes  the  image  to  reduce  or 
deposit  the  platinum  from  the  platinum  salt,  giving  a 
platinum  image.  The  Photo-Miniature,  No.  78,  says : 
“ In  simplicity  of  manipulation,  and  beauty  of  result, 
as  well  as  in  permanency,  the  platinum  process  is  not 
surpassed  by  any  other  printing  process  known.”  The 
objection  to  it  is  its  expense.  Platinum  is  a rare 
metal,  and  is  constantly  rising  in  value  because  the 
demand  for  it  in  electric  arts  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses is  increasing.  Consequently,  while  it  can  be  used 
for  good  and  valuable  prints,  it  is  not  to  be  used  reck- 
lessly. 

Platinum  paper,  or  “ platinotype  paper,”  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  does  not  give  quite  the  “ snap,”  or 
contrast  and  sharpness  of  detail  that  makes  the  gas- 
light papers,  such  as  Velox  and  Cyko,  so  popular.  Nor 
is  it,  in  some  respects,  quite  so  easy  or  convenient  to 
print  and  develop.  It  has  to  be  printed  in  daylight, 
though  not  in  the  sun  ; and  even  in  the  so-called  “ cold 
bath  ” process,  the  manufacturers  recommend  one  to 
maintain  the  temperature  of  the  developer  at  G0°  to 
90°  Fahrenheit.  Put  if  it  lacks  the  contrast  of  Velox, 
it  possesses  a far  greater  beauty  in  the  richness  and 
softness  of  its  shadows,  and  in  a quality  of  “ depth,”  by 
which  we  mean  that  it  makes  us  feel  that  we  are  look- 
ing into  the  scene.  It  records,  also,  many  shadings 
too  delicate  to  show  on  other  papers,  such  as  light 
clouds  in  a sky  which  on  the  gaslight  papers  would 
appear  as  a white  blank.  It  has  one  other  advantage 
— it  lies  quite  flat  without  curling.  It  shows  at  its 
best  in  prints  larger  than  4 x 5 in  size,  and  for  portraits 
is  the  ideal  paper. 


PRINTING  — METHODS  AND  PROCESSES  205 


The  paper  is  usually  of  a dull  surface,  but  glossy 
platinum  papers  are  made.  The  prints  are  black  but 
are  toned  to  the  sepia  brown,  to  red  and  to  blue  by 
various  treatments.  Some  platinum  papers  may  be  de- 
veloped by  mere  exposure  to  a jet  of  steam,  a simple 
and  fascinating  method. 

Altogether,  the  amateur  is  advised  to  print  his  very 
best  negatives  carefully  upon  a platinum  paper  for 
preservation,  being  sure  to  make  the  washing  in  the 
acid  solution  thorough^  and  to  use  fresh  and  dry  paper. 
Thin  negatives  may  be  used  for  platinum  printing,  if 
printed  just  right,  but  the  best  are  those  with  well- 
balanced  contrast.  Those  who  like  fancy  tones  will 
find  a number  of  processes  for  them  given  in  the 
special  ‘handbooks  on  Platinotypes,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  of  them  are  an  improvement  upon  the 
simple  straightforward,  black-and-white  method  of  de- 
velopment. For  coloured  prints  with  sure  permanency, 
use  the  carbon  process,  and  keep  the  platinotype  at 
its  best. 

The  third  iron  process  is  that  known  as  Kallitype. 
It  is  (or  rather  was  — for  it  is  now  seldom  used) 
j)rinted  on  a paper  prepared  (usually  by  the  amateur 
himself,  since  it  does  not  keep)  with  ferric  oxalate  and 
silver  nitrate  chiefly.  The  printing  shows  an  image 
in  yellow,  which  is  developed  in  various  ways,  and 
fixed  with  hypo. 

A process  for  Ivallit3’^pe  recently  recommended  by 
James  Thomson  (Photo-Miniature,  No.  69)  advises  that 
a good  paper  (Whatman’s  or  “ Scotch  linen  ledger  ”) 
be  sized  with  gelatine,  sensitized  in  a solution  he  gives, 
and  then  printed  to  show  deepest  shadows  only,  de- 
veloped in  a nitrate  of  silver  solution,  and  fixed  in 


206  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


weak  hypo.  This  is  said  to  give  prints  equal  to 
platinum ; but  the  process  is  more  troublesome  if 
cheaper,  and  also  stains  the  finger-nails.  Mr.  Bayley, 
the  English  photographer,  throws  doubt  on  the  per- 
manency of  the  Kallitype  process  in  some  forms, — but 
it  may  interest  some  amateurs. 

There  remain  three  forms  of  printing  that  depend 
on  an  entirely  different  principle — that  of  the  change 
of  a gum  treated  with  bichromate  of  potash  under  the 
action  of  light  from  a soluble  to  an  insoluble  condition. 
In  these  processes  paper,  or  some  other  substance,  is 
coated  with  dyed  gelatine,  then  made  sensitive  b}' 
dipping  into  the  bichromate  solution,  and  dried.  The 
paper  is  then  printed  under  a negative,  but  shows  no 
image.  The  light  makes  the  gum  insoluble  in'propor- 
tion  to  the  lighting.  Next,  tlie  film  on  the  paper  is 
transferred,  reversed,  to  another  support,  so  the  printed 
surface  is  beneath.  Now,  by  washing  with  warm  water, 
105°  to  115°  Fahrenheit,  the  gum  is  melted  wherever 
it  is  untouched  by  the  light,  and  least  melted  where  it 
has  been  most  lighted.  The  result  is  to  leave  more 
gelatine  where  the  light  was  strong,  less  where  it  was 
weak  — making  a print  in  the  coloured  gum. 

The  name  “ carbon  ” comes  from  the  fact  that  car- 
bon (such  as  the  pigment  lampblack  or  India  ink)  may 
be  used  as  the  pigment  to  colour  the  gelatine,  and  if 
used  makes  a perfectly  permanent  print.  The  earliest 
carbon  prints  were  printed  from  the  back  through  the 
paper — but  in  1864  Sir  Joseph  Swan  devised  the 
method  of  transferring  the  film  so  as  to  bring  it  with 
the  unprinted  side  upward.  Of  course  the  print 
developed  with  the  printed  side  uppermost  would 
have  been  melted  from  its  support.  The  present 


PRINTING  — METHODS  AND  PROCESSES  207 


process  makes  the  whole  method  simple,  if  somewhat 
long. 

The  carbon-tissues,  or  prepared  papers,  come  in  a 
great  variety  of  colours,  either  sensitized  or  not.  If 
sensitized  it  should  be  fresh,  only  a day  or  two  old  to 
be  at  its  best.  The  sensitizing  is  not  difficult,  nor  are 
the  other  processes,  while  the  results  are  declared  to 
be  unexcelled  by  any  other,  if  the  possibilities  are 
taken  into  account.  Carbon  prints  may  not  only  be 
of  any  colour,  but  may  be  transferred  to  any  substance 
— such  as  glass,  china,  wood,  metals.  If  printed  from 
glass  negatives  they  will  be  reversed,  but  from  films 
they  may  be  printed  so  as  to  come  out  right,  by  print- 
ing through  the  film  back  — that  is,  with  the  smooth 
side  against  the  carbon  paper.  The  printing  does  not 
give  a visible  image,  but  there  is  considerable  latitude, 
and  one  may  print  a negative  of  the  same  general 
density  on  a printing-out  paper  at  the  same  time,  and 
this  will  be  a guide  to  the  unseen  result  on  the  carbon  ; 
or  one  may  go  by  some  actinometer  or  light  measurer. 

The  so-called  Gum-Bichromate  process  is  similar  in 
its  principles,  but  needs  no  transferring  of  the  print, 
and  the  third  process  — the  Ozobrome  — is  also 
one  of  the  same  sort.  But  the  Ozobrome  process  is 
unlike  any  other  in  the  fact  that  the  prints  are  made, 
without  light,  by  putting  a bromide  or  gaslight  print 
into  contact  with  the  Ozobrome  tissue  (of  various 
colours)  in  a special  solution.  Then  the  tissue  is  devel- 
oped like  a carbon  print,  either  by  itself,  or  on  the 
bromide  print.  The  process  is  a new  one  in  this  coun- 
try, and  seems  valuable  because  it  will  enable  ama- 
teurs to  make  large  prints  on  the  Ozobrome  tissue, 
simply  by  making  a bromide  enlargement  from  a 


208  PnOTOGRAPIIY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


small  negative.  Both  allow  of  much  modifying  of 
the  print,  which  recommends  them  to  experienced 
workers  ; but  they  are  not  likely  to  be  used  except  by 
experienced  workers.  All  three  of  the  bichromate 
processes  use  a solution  that  is  dangerous  to  handle 
except  with  the  utmost  care,  not  only  because  it  is 
poison  taken  into  the  mouth,  but  also  may  be  absorbed 
by  a cut  or  sore  on  the  fingers.  If  used,  the  worker 
should  remember  this,  and  see  that  the  skin  is  un- 
broken, and  that  the  hands  and  nails  are  thoroughly 
cleansed  from  it. 

The  young  photographer  will  find  that  the  ordinary 
and  best  known  processes — blue  print,  printing  out 
and  gaslight  papers,  and  the  platinotype  will  give  him 
all  the  variety  he  needs,  and  will  also  teach  him  the 
possibilities  of  other  processes.  To  master  these 
should  be  his  first  task,  and  when  he  has  learned 
them,  he  will  have  graduated  from  such  a book  as 
this  to  the  special  books  on  each  method  of  printing. 
It  is  wisest  to  learn  the  few  best  processes  thoroughly 
before  attempting  the  more  unusual ; and  having 
learned  the  simpler  methods,  the  others  will  be  quickly 
understood. 

To  those  named  above  should  next  be  added  the 
making  of  bromide  prints  and  enlargements,  and  then 
the  carbon  process  — which  will  make  the  amateur  a 
well  equipped  worker. 

The  making  of  positives  is  only  the  printing  of  a 
negative  upon  a new  plate,  the  new  unexposed  plate 
being  put  into  the  printing-frame  against  a negative, 
precisely  as  if  it  were  a printing-out  paper.  Exposure 
is  made  to  a very  weak  light,  and  will  be  very  shorty 
unless  special  plates  meant  for  making  the  positives 


PEINTIXG  — METHODS  AND  PROCESSES  209 


are  used.  Lantern-slides  also  are  made  in  the  same 
way.  Positives,  transparencies,  and  lantern-slides  are 
all  simply  prhits  on  sensitive  plates  instead  of  paper. 
Plates  specially  made  for  these  purposes  are  usually  of 
slow  speed,  and  directions  for  exposure  come  with 
them.  The  development  is  varied  also  to  suit  the  re- 
sult desired. 

In  fact,  space  will  not  permit  our  giving  here  more 
than  the  most  general  rules  ; nor  is  it  necessary.  Un- 
less we  should  equip  ourselves  with  knowledge  greater 
than  that  of  all  the  experts  employed  by  manufac- 
turers— a task  that  might  puzzle  a photographer’s 
congress  ! — we  could  not  do  better  than  to  copy  for 
you  the  directions  given  by  manufacturers  and  dealers 
in  the  printed  matter  accompanying  their  wares.  This 
will  come  to  you, unsought,  and  you  have  only  to  fol- 
low intelligently  the  advice  given,  never  modifying 
rules  unless  you  understand  their  purpose.  For  any 
special  work,  such  as  enlarging,  copying,  making  lan- 
tern-slides and  so  on,  you  will  do  well  to  buy  the  hand- 
books on  your  special  subject.  The  cost  of  them  will 
be  repaid  man}"  times  by  the  time,  labour,  and  money 
they  will  save  you.  It  is  also  well  worth  while  to 
take  at  least  one  good  photographic  periodical,  so  as 
to  know  what  is  doing  in  the  world  of  photography. 
The  experience  of  the  best  workers  is  given  to  the 
world,  and  nearly  all  the  photographic  journals  are 
edited  with  constant  remembrance  of  the  needs  of 
the  beginner  and  the  not  too  skilled  amateur.  The 
publishers  of  such  magazines,  too,  can  usually  supply 
you  back  numbers  containing  articles  on  special  sub- 
jects which  may  have  appeared  in  them,  if  you  write 
for  information  on  any  particular  point.  Not  only  for 


210  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


their  special  articles  on  processes  are  the  periodicals  of 
value,  but  for  their  advertisements  as  well,  from  which 
you  may  learn  of  new  contrivances  for  the  assistance 
of  the  photographer,  new  printing  papers  and  plates, 
on  which  you  will  want  to  keep  posted,  as  improve- 
ments are  always  being  made. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 

What  i3  light?  — How  it  acts  — The  ether  and  its  waves  — Different 
effects — Light  of  the  sun  — lielation  of  electricity  and  light 
waves — What  causes  them  — Electricity  changed  to  heat  and 
light — Different  ether  waves,  and  how  they  are  separated  — The 
prism — The  spectrum,  how  its  different  parts  act  — How  light 
rays  act  on  various  substances  — Chemical  effects  — Examples  in 
fading  or  bleaching  — Experiments  by  the  old  alchemists  — Nitrate 
of  silver  — Horn-silver — Earliest  making  of  light-prints. 

What  light  is  we  do  not  certainly  know.  Its  ef- 
fects are  known,  and  scientific  men  have  studied  its 
action,  and  the  laws  that  it  obeys  until  they  have 
worked  out  a theory  or  guess  what  light  must  be.  So, 
though  we  do  not  know  any  exact  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion “ What  is  light  ? ” we  can  say  a great  deal  in 
reply  to  the  inquiry : 

“ How  does  light  act,  and  by  what  laws  is  it  gov- 
erned ? ” 

The  idea  that  is  believed  to  be  nearest  to  the  truth 
may  be  thus  simply  put : 

•Throughout  all  the  universe,  so  far  as  wo  know 
anything  of  it,  there  is  a something  called  the 
“ ether.”  This  is  named  from  a Greek  word  meaning 
“air,”  since  we  think  of  this  ether  as  filling  all  space 
much  as  air  is  in  the  space  close  about  our  earth  that 
we  know  best.  But  the  ether  is  thought  to  be  in 
every  way  a finer,  lighter,  thinner,  less  gross  sub- 

211 


212  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


stance  than  air ; it  is  thought  to  extend  through  all 
substances,  and  to  possess  remarkable  properties. 
Just  as  air  can  be  set  into  motion,  and  just  as  it  has 
motions  great  and  small,  from  the  grand  rushes  of 
great  masses  of  air  which  we  call  the  “ winds,”  down 
to  the  smaller  motions  of  air  that  are  caused  by 
sounds  which  we  call  “ vibrations,”  so  there  are  differ- 
ent sorts  of  motion  which  we  believe  are  caused  in  the 
ether  when  it  is  disturbed  — that  is,  when  a portion 
of  it  is  moved  from  its  place,  pushed,  or  shaken,  or  set 
into  vibrations,  as  water  is  moved  and  made  to  form 
waves,  or  air  is  moved  in  pulsations. 

In  the  ether  it  is  thought  that  there  are  set  up  by 
disturbances  different  kinds  of  motions,  some  irregu- 
lar, others  regular,  just  as  in  the  sea  we  find  ripples, 
regular  waves,  regular  great  motions  like  the  tides, 
and  occasional  disturbances,  like  earthquake  waves, 
for  example,  which  move  large  bodies  of  water  at  a 
time  irregularly. 

To  the  regular  motions,  or  waves,  believed  to  be  set 
up  in  the  ether  we  have  given  certain  names  accord- 
ing to  their  effects.  The  effects  were  known  to  us 
long  before  any  one  thought  of  explaining  them  by 
imagining  ether  waves,  for  those  effects  are  heat, 
light,  and  electricity.  It  is  thought  that  when  the 
waves  move  in  one  fashion  heat  is  caused;  when  the 
waves  move  more  quickly,  what  we  know  as  heat  be- 
comes changed  into  light ; other  regular  waves  cause 
the  effects  that  we  call  electricity.  These  last  are 
very  like  light  waves  but  are  much  longer. 

Nearly  all  of  the  work  that  man  does  in  the  world 
is  brought  about  by  causing  these  movements  in  the 
ether.  By  means  of  friction  or  chemicals  or  fire  al- 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 


213 


ready  alight  we  start  heat  waves,  as  in  making  a fire, 
or  increasing  one.  We  use  these  heat  waves  to  give  us 
power  and  motion,  as  in  the  steam-engine.  We  may 
change  this  power  or  motion  into  electricity  by  set- 
ting our  steam-engine  to  turn  a dynamo ; and  then, 
having  caused  the  form  of  ether  waves  known  as 
electricity,  we  change  them,  perhaps  by  putting  such 
a substance  as  carbon  under  their  action,  and  so 
produce  that  other  ether-motion  which  we  know  as 
light,  as  in  the  incandescent  light. 

It  is  an  every-day  matter  to  change  heat  to  power, 
power  to  motion,  motion  to  electricity,  electricity  to 
light,  or  heat,  or  power.  And  by  experiment  it  has 
been  shown  that  light  and  electricity  obey  so  many 
laws  in  common,  that  it  is  believed  they  are  different 
forms  of  one  action. 

Light,  then,  is  one  of  the  forms  of  ether  motion. 
We  can,  of  course,  know  nothing  directly  except  by 
our  five  senses;  and  since  everything  comes  to  us 
only  by  sight,  hearing,  touch,  taste,  and  smell,  we  can 
never  be  certain  that  there  is  such  a thing  as  this 
ether,  since  it  must  be  changed  to  motion,  heat,  light, 
sound,  or  electricity,  to  reach  our  senses.  We  do  not 
get  at  or  know  the  ether  except  in  these  forms. 

But  men  have  found  that  if  they  think  of  the  ether 
as  existing  they  can  understand  many  laws  by  which 
it  acts ; and  so  can  explain  and  control  the  action  of 
heat,  light,  and  electricity.  Let  us  accept  the  idea  of 
the  moving  ether,  then,  to  explain  the  action  of  light. 
From  the  sun,  from  the  electric  light,  from  the 
candle,  from  the  reflected  light  of  the  moon,  from  the 
firefly,  from  phosphorus,  come  ether  waves  we  call 
“ light.”  Their  speed  in  moving  from  point  to  point 


214  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


has  been  measured;  the  laws  of  their  motion  have 
been  studied  out. 

It  is  believed  that  when  these  motions  in  the  ether 
proceed  in  certain  wave  lengths  the  effect  is  what  is 
known  as  light.  According  to  Clerk  Maxwell,  when 
the  ether  vibrates  in  from  400,000,000,000  to 

700.000. 000.000  waves  a second,  the  sensation  of 
“light”  is  caused.  When  the  waves  of  ether 
are  from  a few  hundreds  or  thousands  up  to 

200.000. 000.000  a second  we  call  its  action  “ elec- 
tricity.” But  we  must  not  think  these  are  the  only 
ether  waves,  since  at  both  ends  of  the  spectrum  the 
effects  of  others  have  been  traced,  and  exhaustively 
studied. 

Some  of  the  things  that  may  set  the  ether  in 
motion  so  as  to  give  out  light  are  chemical  action  of 
one  substance  on  another;  friction,  or  a rubbing  of 
one  substance  against  another;  and  electricity,  which 
consists  of  ether  waves  that  can  be  shortened  into  other 
waves  and  thus  become  waves  of  light.  In  the  sun, 
to  us  the  chief  source  of  light,  it  is  thought  that  there 
is  enormous  heat,  possibly  caused  by  the  contracting 
of  the  great  mass  of  the  sun  into  smaller  dimen- 
sions ; and  that  in  this  heated  sphere  there  is  intense 
chemical  action  among  the  gases  of  which  it  is  made 
up  or  which  surround  it. 

But  whenever  the  ether  waves  are  of  the  right 
length  and  speed,  they  take  the  character  of  what  we 
know  as  light  waves,  and  may  be  recognized  either  by 
the  eye,  or  by  their  effects  upon  different  substances. 

We  have  seen  how  the  electric  waves,  when  caused 
to  travel  in  waves  of  less  length  by  putting  into  their 
way.  something  which  retards  or  shortens  them,  be- 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 


215 


come  heat  or  light  waves,  and  are  therefore  led  to 
think  that  electricity,  light,  and  heat,  are  really  the 
same  sort  of  action  when  at  different  speeds.  There- 
fore it  is  not  hard  to  understand  that  since  one  kind 
of  waves  pass  into  another  kind,  as  electricity  into 
light,  this  change  from  one  wave  length  to 
another  is  not  always  made  abruptly  or  instantly. 
But  there  is  a succession  of  waves,  each  somewhat 
shorter  than  the  one  before,  when  the  wave  length  is 
shortening;  and  also  a succession  of  waves  each 
longer  then  the  preceding  one,  when  the  wave  length 
is  lengthening,  as  when  light  changes  to  heat. 

Suppose,  for  example,  we  put  into  an  electric-circuit 
made  of  copper  wire  a piece  of  carbon,  which  it  is 
harder  for  the  electric  waves  to  go  through  than 
through  the  Avire.  AVhen  they  first  reach  it,  the 
waves  are  very  greatly  slowed  down,  so  much  that 
they  become  heat  waves  and  the  piece  of  carbon  be- 
comes warm  to  the  touch.  If  the  current  is  strength- 
ened, or  the  carbon  becomes  hotter,  the  waves  get 
through  more  easily.  As  the  waves  gain  a higher  rate 
of  speed,  the  carbon  grows  hotter  and  hotter  and  some 
of  the  waves  escape  into  light  waves  — that  is,  we  say 
the  carbon  becomes  luminous,  or  “ red  hot.”  When 
still  further  heated,  the  waves  are  more  rapid,  and  the 
carbon  becomes  white  hot.  In  this  state  it  may  begin 
to  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  or,  in  simple 
language,  to  burn  up. 

In  the  sun,  it  is  supposed  that  there  are  different 
kinds  of  action  among  the  heated  gases,  and  that  from 
these  different  kinds  of  action  come  ether  waves  of 
various  speeds.  Each  one  of  the  different  sorts  of  ac- 
tion in  the  sun  is  sending  off  ether  waves  through 


216  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


' space,  and  so  we  should  suppose  that  these  ether 
waves  are  of  different  speeds  and  lengths.  Some  of 
tlie  waves  are  at  the  right  rate  to  become  light  waves. 
But  not  all  these  light  waves  are  alike. 

If,  then,  we  can  find  out  a means  of  separating  one 
set  of  light  waves  from  another,  we  can  find  out  what 
sorts  make  up  the  sun’s  light.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has 
done  this  for  us,  and  shown  us  how  to  repeat  his  ex- 
periment. 

Into  a dark  room  he  admitted  through  a small  hole 
a ray  of  sunlight.  In  the  path  of  this  beam  of  sun- 
light he  put  a three-sided  piece  of  glass  known  as  a 
prism.  This  had  a thick  and  a thin  edge.  In  going 
through  the  prism  the  ether  waves  were  interrupted 
and  bent  from  their  paths ; that  is,  they  were  “ re- 
fracted,” which  means  bent  or  broken  aside  as  we 
have  explained  in  talking  of  the  lens.  The  waves  that 
travelled  quickest  were  the  most  bent ; those  that  were 
going  more  slowly  were  the  least  pushed  from  their 
path  ; and  upon  a screen  were  received  the  different 
light  rays  that  made  up  the  sunbeam,  each  striking  on 
a different  place  according  as  each  was  more  or  less 
bent  from  a straight  line. 

Then  it  was  seen  that  instead  of  being  made  up  of 
one  kind  of  light,  the  sunbeam  contained  man\^  rays 
that  differed  from  one  another  in  colour  and  were 
spread  out  in  a patchwork  band  in  which  the  eye 
could  see  a succession  of  brilliantly  coloured  lights  in 
a certain  regular  order.  . 

At  one  end  of  this  band  was  a bright  violet,  at  the 
other  end  a bright  red,  and  between  these,  passing 
ddlicately  one  into  another^  were  other  coloured  bands, 
making  up  the  following  list : red,  orange,  green,  blue. 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 


217 


indigo,  violet.  It  was  also  seen  that  by  their  direction 
the  colour  most  changed  from  a straight  path  was  the 
violet,  while  the  least  turned  from  its  course  was  the 
red.  In  other  words,  the  quickest  rays  were  those 
that  we  know  by  the  name  violet,  and  the  others  were 
slower  in  regular  order  until  at  the  other  end  of  the 
band,  or  spectrum,  were  the  slow  red  rays. 

It  was  also  easy  to  show  that  when  these  coloured 
rays  were  all  brought  together  again,  by  means  of 
mirrors  or  prisms,  they  gave  a beam  of  white  light. 

Once  having  caused  the  rays  that  made  up  the  sun- 
beam to  separate  themselves  one  from  another,  it  was 
easy  to  place  a screen  to  stop  all  but  any  one  of  them, 
and  then  to  see  which  one  of  the  rays  acted  most  pow- 
erfully in  giving  any  effect  known  to  be  caused  by  the 
whole  sunbeam.  The  rays  were  carefully  studied,  and 
it  was  found  that  each  had  its  specialty  ; that  is,  pro- 
duced certain  effects  of  sunshine  more  than  others. 
Most  powerful  of  all  in  chemical  action  were  the 
violet  rays,  and  certain  rays  that  were  not  visible  to 
the  eye,  but  were  beyond  the  visible  violet  rays,  and 
were  called  the  ultra-violet  rays.  For  the  visible 
spectrum  is  not  all  of  it ; there  are  rays  at  each  end, 
beyond  what  we  see. 

The  study  of  the  spectrum  is  of  course,  as  you  may 
guess,  a whole  science  in  itself ; but  so  far  as  it  has  to 
do  with  photography  the  important  thing  to  remem- 
ber is  that  the  changes  with  which  photography  has 
most  to  do  are  caused  most  intensely  by  the  violet 
rays  and,  generally,  by  all  those  nearest  to  that  end 
of  the  spectrum,  and  that  the  weakest  rays  for  photog- 
raphy are  found  at  the  other  end  of  the  spectrum,  that 
is,  where  the  red  rays  are.  This,  for  example,  ex- 


218  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


plains  at  once  the  use  of  the  red  glass  of  the  dark- 
room lamp : it  is  a substance  that  lets  the  red  rays 
pass  easily  and  slows  down  the  other  rays  of  light  un- 
til they  too  come  out  as  red  rays. 

AVhen  the  ether  waves  known  as  light  strike  upon 
different  kinds  of  surfaces,  they  act  in  different  ways. 
Some  of  the  rays  are  reflected ; that  is,  they  are  turned 
aside  and  into  a new  path,  and  it  is  by  means  of  these 
reflected  rays  that  we  see,  and  it  is  these  reflected  rays 
that  come  into  the  camera.  Some  of  them  are  slowed 
down  so  as  to  be  changed  from  light  rays  into  heat,  as 
is  very  evident  to  us  where  the  direct  sunshine  rests 
upon  any  surface.  Thus  we  see  that  the  light  rays 
have  two  effects  which  are  so  easily  understood  that 
they  have  always  been  noticed. 

A third  effect  is  so  much  slower  in  its  action,  ordi- 
narily, that  we  do  not  think  of  it  so  often  nor  under- 
stand it  quite  so  well  until  it  is  studied.  Still,  we  all 
know  that  if  a person,  on  a bright  sunshiny  day,  is 
out  in  a boat  exposed  to  the  direct  sunlight  for  some 
time,  he  will  be  aware  that  the  light  is  brightly  visible 
and  that  the  sun’s  rays  are  warm,  and  he  knows  also 
that  there  will  be  a third  effect  produced  in  time.  The 
sun  will  change  the  colour  of  his  skin,  darkening  it. 
This  is  not  exactly  the  same  as  “ sunburn,”  which 
means  the  redness  of  the  skin  coming  from  the  warm- 
ing effect  and  from  bringing  the  blood  to  the  surface, 
but  it  is  what  we  know  as  “ tanP  This  darkening  of 
the  skin  is  the  effect  of  a chemical^  action  of  the  sun’s 
rays  — that  is,  of  the  sun’s  ether  weaves  — and  by 
chemical  action  is  meant  the  changing  of  the  nature  of 
substances  so  that  their  properties  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent. 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 


219 


For  example,  if  we  take  any  given  substance,  like 
sugar,  and  break  it,  grind  it,  powder  it,  dissolve  it  in 
water,  let  it  crystallize  again  into  its  old  shape,  and  so 
on,  we  change  its  form,  but  without  changing  its 
properties.  If,  however,  we  burn  a lump  of  sugar 
in  a closely  covered  receptacle  so  that  no  part  of  it 
can  escape  even  in  vapour,  we  shall  find  that  it  has 
been  changed  in  its  properties,  caused  to  separate  into 
simpler  substances  which  can  then  be  combined  into 
new  things  having  none  of  the  properties  of  sugar. 
This  is  a chemical  change,  for  burning  is  only  a chem- 
ical process  in  which  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is  allowed 
to  act  upon  the  other  chemical  elements  that  make  up 
whatever  in  the  sugar  will  unite  with  oxygen  — that 
is,  will  burn. 

Now  the  action  of  the  sun  is  of  this  nature  upon 
some  things  — it  changes  them  chemically.  And  it 
is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that,  sooner  or  later,  strong 
light  acts  chemically  upon  all  substances,  sometimes 
less,  sometimes  more.  In  fact  a recent  scientific  work 
on  photography  says  that  wherever  light  is  absorbed 
by  a body  work  must  have  been  done  on  that  body  — 
or  some  change  in  it  caused.  We  can  see  this  action 
very  quickly  upon  some  dyes,  for  example,  when  they 
have  been  used  in  wall-paper.  Often  it  will  be  found, 
on  moving  a picture,  that  the  part  of  the  paper  which 
has  been  hidden  from  the  more  direct  action  of  the 
light  is  different  in  colour  from  that  exposed  to  the  di- 
rect light.  We  say  that  uncovered  paper  “ fades 
more,”  but  really  this  means  that  there  has  been  a 
chemical  change  in  the  pigment  used  in  staining  the 
paper.  Upon  some  substances  this  action  is  very 
quick,  upon  others  so  slow  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 


220  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


The  bleaching  of  clothes  in  the  sunlight  is  another 
example  of  the  sun’s  chemical  action.  An  old  book  in 
speaking  of  this  says  that  it  was  for  a time  thought 
that  this  change  was  the  effect  of  heat,  but  by  putting 
cloths  coloured  with  a dye  that  faded  quickly  in  the 
sun,  into  an  oven  much  hotter  than  the  sun’s  rays  it 
was  found  that  very  often  no  change  at  all  was  pro- 
duced. Another  little  proof  mentioned  is  the  fact 
that  wax  which  is  whitened  by  sunlight,  darkens 
when  heated.  But  most  of  the  changes  that  were 
noticed  in  the  old  times  were  rather  slow.  The  most 
important  of  all  these  changes  is  that  seen  in  the 
leaves  of  trees,  which  under  the  action  of  sunlight  ab- 
sorb carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and  then  give  off 
oxygen.  Without  light  this  cannot  be  done. 

In  the  case  of  one  metal,  however,  the  action  was 
quick  enough  to  excite  men’s  curiosity. 

Many  years  ago,  in  the  beginning  of  chemistry,  it 
was  believed  that  it  might  be  possible  to  find  a mag- 
ical substance  which  would  change  cheaper  and  com- 
moner metals  into  gold  or  silver.  This  caused  the  old 
chemists  to  make  many  experiments  about  dissolving 
gold  and  silver  in  acids.  Silver  would  dissolve  readily 
in  nitric  acid  and  make  a clear  and  colourless  liquid. 
If,  then,  this  liquid  was  left  alone,  it  would  evaporate 
or  disappear,  and  would  leave  behind  it  white  crystals. 
These  were  a new  chemical  form  made  up  from  part 
of  the  nitric  acid  and  from  the  silver.  These  crystals 
were  called  “ nitrate  of  silver.” 

By  making  an  experiment  with  this  new  substance 
it  was  found  that  it  would  dissolve  readily  in  water, 
and  that  anything  wet  with  the  solution  would,  when 
exposed  to  light,  turn  to  an  intense  brown  or  black. 


LIGHT  AND  ITS  ACTION 


221 


This  solution  is  still  used  for  marking  clothing  — 
being  called  “ Indelible  Ink  ” — which  is  melted  nitrate 
of  silver,  having  a little  gum  added  to  give  it  sullicient 
thickness  not  to  “ run  ” in  the  cloth.  Here  then  was 
something  that  quickly  darkened  when  exposed  to  the 
light.  But  the  same  metal,  silver,  formed  also  another 
compound  upon  which  light  would  act  quickly,  and 
this  too  was  soon  discovered. 

In  a German  mine  there  was  found  a kind  of  silver 
ore  that  when  first  picked  up  was  nearly  colourless  and 
transparent.  In  fact  it  was  called  “ horn  silver,’’  be- 
cause it  looked  not  unlike  clear  pieces  of  horn.  "When 
exposed  to  the  sunlight  it  very  rapidly  changed  to  a 
violet  tint,  the  change  occupying  only  a few  minutes. 
This  rapid  change  in  the  ore  of  silver  could  not  but  be 
noticed. 

When  it  was  seen  that  light  turned  nitrate  of  silv’^er 
and  some  other  silver  compounds  to  a darker  colour,  it 
was  but  a simple  step  to  place  upon  paper  that  had 
been  wet  with  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  objects  that 
would  cut  off  the  light  from  parts  of  the  paper,  and  in 
this  way  leave  the  paper  to  be  darkened  except  where 
they  had  rested.  A leaf,  for  example,  placed  flat 
upon  such  a piece  of  prepared  paper  and  out  in  the 
sun  would  keep  the  nitrate  of  silver  below  it  from 
turning  dark ; and  when  the  paper  was  taken  to  a less 
strong  light  and  the  leaf  removed,  there  would  be  a 
picture  of  the  leaf’s  outline  in  white. 

But  although  we  shall  see  that  many  uses  were 
made  of  this  knowledge,  so  long  as  the  printed  picture 
could  not  be  left  in  the  light  without  turning  to  the 
same  dark  all  over,  the  process  was  of  little  use.  Con- 
sequently, search  began  for  some  way  of  keeping  the 


222  niOTOGEATKY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


printed  pictures  from  changing  ; but  for  a long  time 
no  way  of  making  a lasting  difference  between  the 
two  parts  of  the  paper,  the  printed  and  the  unprinted, 
was  known.  The  only  way  of  preserving  them  was 
to  keep  them  shut  up  in  portfolios  or  in  dark  cup- 
boards. 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

Who  inveuted  photography? — What  photography  iucludes — The 
work  of  many  miuds  — The  camera  obscura  — Da  Porta’s  account 
— The  chemist  Schulze  — Experiments  on  silver  compounds  — 
Scheele’s  researches  — Wedgwood  and  Davy  make  silver  prints  in 
the  camera  — Ni6pce  makes  heliographs — His  process — Daguerre 
joins  with  Niepce  — Story  of  Daguerre’s  life — His  experiments 
with  Niepce  — The  use  of  iodide  of  silver  — Discovery  of  a means 
of  developing  the  image  — The  daguerreotype  explained. 

Mr.  Alfred  Watkins,  the  celebrated  photographer 
and  inventor,  in  a recent  address  said : “ There  has 
been  much  misdirected  inquiry  on  the  question,  ‘Who 
discovered  — or  invented  — photography  ? ’ Almost 
as  truthfully  might  it  be  asked,  ‘ Who  discovered  Wind- 
sor Castle  ? ’ Our  present  practice  of  photography  has 
been  evolved,  like  all  branches  of  science  and  industry, 
through  the  labours  of  countless  workers,  each  adding 
at  least  one  stone  to  the  edifice  of  knowledge.  Here 
and  there  stands  out  the  name  of  a worker  of  surpass- 
ing genius  or  application  who  has  contributed  a founda- 
tion, a story,  or  a whole  wing  to  the  building  ; and  in 
giving  due  honour  to  such  a name  we  are  apt  to  forget 
how  dependent  he  was  on  the  work  of  others.” 

This  witty  and  sensible  paragraph  should  be  borne  in 
mind  by  all  amateurs  in  order  to  prevent  their  giving 
too  much  honour  to  some  of  the  noted  workers  in  the 
science  and  art  of  photography,  while  robbing  others 
of  their  rightful  share  of  fame.  Just  as  the  great 

223 


224  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


castle  at  Windsor  is  due  to  a vast  number  of  workers, 
so  is  the  process  that  gives  us  photographs  to-day. 

Not  only  is  it  useless  to  ask  who  invented  it,  but  it 
is  equally  foolish  to  ask  who  made  the  first  photograph. 
The  answer  to  such  questions  de|)ends  entirely  upon 
what  is  meant  by  them.  “Photography”  means  a 
great  many  things,  and  each  may  be  thought  of  by  it- 
self, or  in  connection  with  all  its  fellows.  Each  of 
these  things  has  existed  in  many  forms ; and  as  it  ex- 
ists to-day,  it  usually  is  a combination  of  a number  of 
inventions  and  discoveries.  We  can  tell,  sometimes, 
what  man  made  the  discovery  that  was  the  first  step 
toward  some  part  of  photography,  but  that  first  step 
was  very  rarely  a complete  one. 

We  will  suppose  that  any  one  of  us  sets  out  to  take 
a photograph,  and  has  to  begin  at  the  beginning 
by  getting  together  the  things  needed.  First,  then, 
a camera  is  bought,  whether  simple  or  elaborate,  cheap 
or  expensive.  This  consists  of  a box,  a lens,  and  ways 
of  exposing  plates  or  films.  Secondly,  comes  the 
sensitive  plates  or  films.  Then,  thirdly,  there  are  the 
developing  chemicals,  and  the  apparatus  and  chemicals 
for  making  a print.  Fourth,  there  is  the  apparatus 
for  the  dark  room  — the  lantern,  the  trays  and  so  on. 

These  ready,  an  exposure  is  made,  the  plate  de- 
veloped, fixed,  washed,  and  dried.  Then  the  print  is 
made,  finished  and  handed  over  — a complete  photo- 
graph. 

All  this  proceeding  photography.  And  before  tlie 
art  could  be  practiced,  there  had  to  bo  invented  the 
camera,  with  its  devices ; the  plates,  with  their  chem- 
ical treatment ; the  print,  with  the  way  of  making  it 
lasting. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  225 


No  one  man  invented  the  whole  process.  Perhaps 
the  nearest  to  the  inventor  of  a complete  process  was 
the  Frenchman,  Daguerre,  and  yet  what  he  invented 
was  only  a very  small  part  of  one  process.  The  art  of 
pliotography  grew  up  by  steps,  slowly  made,  gradually 
set  right. 

First  came  the  camera,  then  came  the  ways  of 
getting  a clear  image  into  the  camera ; then  the  mak- 
ing of  this  image  lasting ; then  a way  of  making  this 
lasting  image  so  it  could  be  used  to  print  copies  of 
itself. 

Each  one  of  these  steps  was  an  invention,  or  often 
the  combined  inventions  and  discoveries  of  many  men. 
So  it  can  be  seen  that  it  is  hardly  fair  to  call  any  one 
or  two  or  three  men  the  inventors  of  photography,  or 
discoverers  of  its  methods. 

In  a very  recent  and  delightful  book  on  photography,* 
it  is  told  how  in  tropical  countries,  where  the  sunlight 
is  so  bright  and  houses  were  made  with  few  openings 
so  as  to  be  cool,  the  people  must  often  have  seen  from 
the  very  earliest  times,  the  forming  of  pictures  in  the 
darkened  rooms  by  a ray  of  light  coming  in  through 
a narrow  chink.  Among  the  earliest  civilized  nations, 
such  as  the  Egyptians,  the  forming  of  these  pictures 
must  have  been  noticed  ; and  so  we  find  in  the  very 
oldest  authors,  descriptions  of  such  appearances.  Aris- 
totle, who  seems  to  have  had  all  the  knowledge  of  his 
time,  and  who  lived  nearly  2,300  years  ago,  tells  us 
that  the  spot  made  by  the  ray  of  sunlight  coming 
through  a very  small  hole  of  any  shape  is  always  more 
or  less  circular.  This  any  one  may  prove  for  himself 
by  cutting  square,  triangular,  or  irregular  holes  in  a 
* Bayley’s  “ Complete  Photographer.” 


226  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


bit  of  paper,  and  letting  the  sun  shine  through  them. 
If  the  holes  are  not  too  large,  all  the  spots  of  sunlight 
will  be  round.  The  lights  under  a tree,  for  example, 
on  a sunny  day,  when  the  sun  is  high  in  the  sky,  will 
be  seen  to  be  round.  Further,  Aristotle  noted  that 
during  an  eclipse,  when  the  sun  was  changed  in  shape, 
the  spots,  too,  changed  to  the  shape  of  the  sun  at  the 
time,  which  showed  that  the  spots  were  images  of  the 
sun.  Euclid,  the  geometer,  some  generations  later, 
used  to  show  how  the  sun  made  its  own  image  through 
a small  crevice.  Of  course,  we  know  that  the  crevice 
acted  like  the  pinhole  lens,  already  explained. 

All  this  shows  that  the  general  idea  of  the  camera 
was  understood  in  very  ancient  times ; but  the  first 
real  box  or  camera  made  for  showing  the  images 
was  possibly  made  about  fifty  years  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  Next  we  find  an  account  of  such 
a camera  written  by  the  great  artist,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  In  1558,  however,  is  found  the  first  clear  and 
exact  account  of  the  camera  written  by  an  old  Italian 
philosopher.  Born  about  1543,  in  Naples,  Giovanni 
Battista  della  Porta  from  his  youth  up  devoted  him- 
self to  philosophy,  to  experiment,  to  publishing  what 
science  he  could  gather,  and,  strangel}"  enough,  also  to 
the  writing  of  plays.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he 
published  a book  in  which,  among  other  things,  he 
described  the  camera  obscura,  saying  that  if  a small 
opening  is  made  in  the  shutter  of  a dark  room,  images 
of  external  objects  — that  is,  of  the  view  — will  be 
shown  on  the  opposite  wall  in  their  true  colours.  And 
he  further  adds  that  if  a convex  lens  (a  lens  thick  in 
the  middle  and  thin  at  the  edges)  be  put  in  the  opening 
and  the  image  is  received  on  a surface  at  the  right 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  227 


distance  from  the  lens,  the  picture  will  be  made  so  clear 
that  a person  standing  on  the  outside  of  the  window 
may  be  known  in  the  image.  But  the  using  of  a lens 
in  this  way  had  already  been  told  about  by  another 
writer. 

Porta  made  an  apparatus  for  showing  these  images, 
and  he  also  pointed  out  that  the  eye  is  such  a camera 
obscura,  though  he  seemed  to  think  that  the  images 
were  formed  on  the  pupil  instead  of  at  the  back  of  the 
eye  as  we  know  them  to  be.  It  would  hardly  seem 
from  this  that  Porta  invented  the  instrument. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  remind  the  reader  that  camera 
obscura  is  only  Italian  for  “dark  room.” 

The  image  shown  by  the  camera  was  upside  down, 
and  this  had  led  very  early  to  the  adding  of  a mirror 
so  inclined  that  the  images  could  be  viewed  right  side 
up.  When  the  device  had  been  improved,  it  was  ar- 
ranged so  that  it  consisted  of  a dark  room,  on  top  of 
which  was  a revolving  opening  that  could  be  turned 
toward  any  direction  of  the  view.  In  this  opening 
was  a lens  that  made  the  image  clearer  and  brighter 
and  sent  it  to  be  received  upon  a table  placed  in  a 
room  below,  where  it  could  be  conveniently  viewed. 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  putting  a flat  white  surface 
such  as  a piece  of  paper,  upon  a table,  the  scene  would 
be  received  upon  this  and  could  be  copied  at  leisure  by 
an  artist.  It  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  before  the 
improvement  of  photography,  to  build  these  camera 
observatories  upon  points  that  afforded  a good  view  of 
the  surrounding  country,  and  it  was  a popular  amuse- 
ment to  observe  from  within  the  scenes  that  came 
through  the  lens. 

The  idea  of  using  these  images  as  a help  to  drawing 


228  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


came  to  many,  and  artists  and  astronomers  found  the 
camera-image  a great  help  in  sketching.  The  camera, 
with  its  lens,  was  carefully  studied,  and  was  well  un- 
derstood long  before  there  was  any  idea  that  the  pic- 
tures made  by  it  could  be  made  lasting.  So  we  may 
say  that  the  camera  was  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  the 
chemists  found  out  how  to  make  it  take  pictures.  The 
principles  of  the  action  of  the  camera  obscura  were  set 
forth  in  full  by  the  great  astronomer  Kepler,  and  there 
were  many  forms  of  the  apparatus,  some  for  use,  oth- 
ers for  mere  amusement.  It  was  also  known  at  a very 
early  date  that  the  human  eye  was  a camera,  receiving 
images  in  the  same  way,  and  governed  by  the  same 
principles.  All  this  was  known  before  there  had  been 
any  step  toward  making  the  camera  images  perma- 
nent, though  some  fanciful  writers  had  suggested  the 
possibility  of  doing  this. 

In  telling  of  the  effects  of  light,  we  have  spoken  of 
the  discovery  of  horn-silver,  and  of  the  sensitiveness 
to  light  of  certain  silver  compounds.  The  nitrate  of 
silver  may  have  been  known  to  the  Egyptians,  and 
was  described  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century  by  an 
Arabian  chemist,  who  speaks  also  of  certain  dyes  or 
pigments  made  from  silver.  The  first  mention  of  sil- 
ver as  producing  dark  stains  was  in  1546,  by  George 
Bauer,  who  also  says  that  a certain  silver  ore  changes 
to  a darker  tint.  But  the  earliest  statement  that  horn- 
silver  darkens,  is  in  a book  by  Fachs,  in  1567,  and  there 
is  no  clear  understanding  of  the  cause  until  the  work 
of  Schulze. 

The  first  chemist  to  make  sure  that  it  was  light  that 
darkened  the  silver  was  Johann  Heinrich  Schulze. 
He  accidentally  mixed  nitric  acid  in  which  a little  sil- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  229 


ver  had  been  dissolved,  with  chalk,  and  noticed  while 
working  by  a window  that  the  compound  darkened  to 
a purplish  red  where  the  sunshine  rested  on  it,  and 
only  there.  Following  up  this  hint,  he  put  the  same 
mixture  into  bottles,  and  covering  them  with  paper  in 
which  openings  were  made,  he  was  able  to  print  the 
shape  of  the  openings  upon  the  contents  of  the  bottle, 
lie  also  proved  by  a series  of  experiments  that  it  was 
the  silver  that  caused  the  change. 

He  published  his  experiment  in  1727,  and  Mr.  Bay- 
ley  thinks  that  the  later  English  experimenter,  Wedg- 
wood, got  his  suggestions  indirectly  from  Schulze’s 
account,  through  another  Englishman,  Dr.  William 
Lewis.  Lewis  made  many  experiments  with  the  silver 
nitrate,  showing  how  it  was  darkened  by  light,  and 
also  with  other  chemicals.  Dr.  Lewis’s  experiments 
were  told  of  in  a book  published  in  1763.  Before  this, 
in  1757,  the  Italian  chemist,  Beccari,  had  studied  the 
chloride  of  silver,  and  proved  its  darkening  to  be  due 
to  light.  Nine  years  later  than  Lewis’s  book  appeared 
a work  on  “ Discoveries  relating  to  Light,  Vision  and 
Colour,”  by  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley,  describing  Schulze’s 
discoveries,  and  mentioning  also  those  of  Beccari,  and 
Lewis’s  book ; and  only  a short  time  before  (1770),  John 
Dollond,  an  English  optician,  had  explained  how  it 
was  possible  to  make  an  achromatic  lens  — a discovery 
made  by  Chester  More  Hall,  an  astronomer,  some  time 
earlier,  and  one  that  was  to  prove  most  essential  in 
photography. 

Another  step  was  taken  by  Carl  Wilhelm  Scheele. 

About  the  time  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  in 
America,  this  German  chemist  became  much  interested 
in  the  action  of  light  upon  horn-silver,  and  following 


230  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Beccari,  he  made  a great  many  experiments  to  find 
out  not  only  how  sunlight  acted  upon  this  substance, 
the  chemical  name  of  which  is  chloride  of  silver,  but 
also  he  tried  the  effects  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
spectrum  upon  the  chloride  to  see  which  one  acted 
most  rapidly. 

There  is  little  to  record  about  this  chemist’s  life  ex- 
cept the  appearance  every  now  and  then  of  deep 
treatises  written  by  him  and  telling  the  results  of  his 
experiments.  There  is,  in  the  encyclopedias,  a long 
list  of  valuable  facts  he  learned  in  his  quiet  life  in  the 
laboratory.  To  him  is  due  the  proof  that  air  consists 
of  two  gases,  the  invention  of  a valuable  dye,  the  ex- 
plaining of  the  souring  of  milk,  and  the  discovering  of 
glycerine.  Not  only  did  he  discover  numberless 
things,  but  in  each  case  he  studied  completely  the  ac- 
tion of  each  body  he  discovered. 

In  short,  he  was  a great  genius,  who,  in  a brief  life, 
made  discoveries  of  priceless  value  to  mankind.  He 
was  the  first  to  find  out  that  the  raj's  most  powerful 
in  blackening  silver  were  the  violet  rays.  Such  inv^es- 
tigations  were  carried  still  further  by  other  chemists, 
and  it  was  not  many  years  before  it  had  been  shown 
that  nothing  seemed  to  have  the  same  quick  sensitive- 
ness to  the  action  of  light  possessed  by  silver  or  its 
various  compounds.  We  cannot  note  the  various  dis- 
coveries, but  will  record  that  in  1800  and  1801  Sir 
AVilliam  Ilerschel  discovered  heat  rays  beyond  the  red 
rays,  and  J.  Ritter  discovered  the  invisible  rays  be^'ond 
the  violet,  and  proved  their  action  on  silver  salts. 

There  is  a claim  that  about  1780  a French  professor 
named  Charles  made  silhouette  profiles  by  casting  the 
shadows  of  his  pupils’  heads  on  paper  prepared  with 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  rilOTOGRAPHY  231 


chloride  of  silver ; yet  the  evidence  is  very  slight;  and 
there  is  also  a statement  that  Lord  Brougham  sent  to 
the  English  lioyal  Society  in  1795  a paper  suggesting 
that  ivory  rubbed  with  nitrate  of  silver  might  retain 
camera  images,  but  neither  of  these  ideas  led  to  any 
j)ractical  result  — which  is  the  important  matter. 

During  the  years  when  these  investigations  were 
carried  on,  there  was  in  England  a number  of  friends 
interested  in  such  discoveries,  and  often  meeting  and 
corresponding.  Dr.  Priestley,  the  discoverer  of  oxy- 
gen, and  author  of  the  book  on  “ Discoveries  relating 
to  Light,”  was  one  of  them ; the  father  of  Charles 
Darwin  (whose  brother  married  a daughter  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood)  was  another;  James  Watt,  inventor  of 
, the  steam-engine,  and  Josiah  AVedgwood,  the  famous 
maker  of  pottery,  were  also  included  in  it.  Mr.  Bay- 
ley  tells  us  that  a former  assistant  to  Dr.  Lewis  came 
as  secretary  into  the  service  of  Wedgwood,  and  was 
employed  partly  in  educating  Thomas  Wedgwood,  his 
son.  This  was  Alexander  Chicholra  (or  Chisholm,  or 
Chisolm). 

Undoubtedly  this  assistant  knew  of  Lewis’s  experi- 
ments with  nitrate  of  silver,  having  been  thirty  years 
in  Lewis’s  service,  and  through  him  Wedgwood 
(Thomas)  became  acquainted  with  its  properties,  and 
began  to  experiment  with  it.  It  is  hardly  to  be 
doubted  that  Tom  AVedgwood  also  knew  of  Priestley’s 
work,  since  his  father  was  a subscriber  to  it,  and  Tom 
corresponded  with  Dr.  Priestley. 

About  1802  came  out  a paper  by  Thomas  Wedgwood 
with  notes  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  then  an  assistant 
lecturer  in  the  Royal  Institution.  This  paper  told  how 
to  copy  paintings  on  glass,  and  to  make  profiles  by 


I 


232  THOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  “agency  of  light  upon  nitrate  of  silver.”  In  this 
paper  Wedgwood  claimed  the  invention  of  the  method. 
What  he  had  really  done  was  to  combine  the  knowl- 
edge that  nitrate  and  chloride  of  silver  would  darken 
in  the  light,  with  the  use  of  the  lens  and  the  prism,  as 
told  about  in  the  works  of  Priestley  and  others. 

It  was  natural  that  those  who  knew  the  beauty  of 
the  little  images  formed  in  the  camera,  and  who  knew 
that  light  could  print  the  outlines  of  objects  laid  u[)on 
paper  wet  with  nitrate  of  silver,  should  see  what 
beautiful  results  could  be  secured  if  the  images  made 
by  the  camera  obscura  could  be  caused  to  print  them- 
selves upon  paper,  and  thus  save  the  artist  his  trouble 
in  copying  the  scenes  the  camera  showed.  But  at  first 
Wedgwood  did  not  make  much  progress  in  this. 

Thomas  Wedgwood  soaked  paper  or  white  leather 
in  the  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  and  then  printed  ujion 
it  images  of  ferns  or  ))ictures  in  outline.  Davy,  in  his 
notes,  remarks  : “ Nothing  but  a method  of  preventing 
the  unshaded  parts  of  the  delineation  from  being  col- 
oured b}'  exposure  to  the  day  is  wanting  to  render  the 
process  as  useful  as  it  is  elegant.” 

In  making  his  experiments  Wedgwood  had  tried 
also  to  fix  upon  his  prepared  paper  or  leather  the 
images  made  in  the  camera  obscura ; but  though  he 
was  able  to  get  traces  of  the  light’s  action,  it  was  only 
by  making  very  long  exposures,  and  even  then  the 
traces  were  faint  and  showed  probably  only  the  bright- 
est lights. 

When  the  same  experiment  was  tried  with  images 
cast  by  the  sun  through  microscopic  objects,  and 
thence  through  a microscope  upon  prepared  paper  or 
white  leather,  better  success  was  met  with,  probably 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  233 


because  the  light  was  more  concentrated.  But  the 
experimenters  had  no  very  great  success,  and  could 
not  preserve  the  images  except  in  the  dark,  though 
they  tried  by  prolonged  washing  to  leave  only  the 
blackened  or  metallic  silver  in  the  paper.  Conse- 
quently until  more  knowledge  was  gained,  little  could 
be  gained. 

Meanwhile,  others  were  likewise  working  on  the 
same  problems,  though  they  did  not  always  approach 
them  from  the  same  direction.  The  next  step  in  ad- 
vance was  taken  in  trying  to  improve  upon  certain 
printing  processes  in  lithography  — which  is  the  method 
whereby  a drawing  made  on  soft  stone  can  be  used  to 
make  prints  in  ink. 

The  next  noted  experimenter  was  Joseph  Niepce,  a 
Frenchman,  born  in  1705.  He  became  interested 
when  about  forty -eight  years  old  (1813)  in  lithography, 
mainly  with  the  idea  of  reproducing  certain  line-en- 
gravings. In  order  to  save  himself  the  trouble  of 
copying  these,  he  tried  to  make  them  transparent  by 
oiling  or  varnishing  them,  and  putting  them  upon 
metal  plates  covered  with  different  substances,  in  the 
hope  that  the  light  shining  through  the  transparent 
engravings  would  print  an  image  that  afterward  could 
be  engraved  by  the  use  of  acid. 

He  seems  to  have  tried  a great  number  of  different 
substances,  including  some  silver  compounds,  but  was 
most  successful  with  a kind  of  resin.  This  was  bitumen, 
or  asphalt,  which  he  spread  on  polished  metal  plates. 
Exposed  to  the  light  under  an  engraving  or  drawing, 
this  bitumen  was  so  affected  that  where  the  light  had 
acted  the  bitumen  was  hard  to  dissolve,  while  the  parts 
protected  by  the  lines  of  the  engraving  could  be  dis- 


234  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


solved  away  by  the  use  of  a chemical  — the  oil  of 
lavender. 

AVhen  a plate  so  covered  with  bitumen  had  been  ex- 
posed to  the  light  and  then  had  been  put  into  the  oil 
of  lavender,  those  parts  of  the  plate  that  had  been 
struck  by  the  light  were  still  covered  by  the  bitumen, 
and  therefore  looked  brown,  while  the  parts  protected 
by  the  lines  of  the  drawing  had  been  dissolved  away 
by  the  oil  of  lavender  and  so  the  lighter  metal  showed 
through.  Thus  he  had  made  a plate  on  which  the 
original  drawing  was  reversed  in  colour,  black  lines 
showing  white,  white  places  showing  brown. 

It  was  not  a quick  process,  since  even  in  direct  sun- 
light the  printing  time  was  from  four  to  six  hours; 
and  when  the  same  process  was  tried  in  order  to  fix 
the  images  of  the  camera  obscura,  the  necessary  time 
of  printing  was  immensely  increased. 

AVhen  once  he  had  succeeded  in  getting  these  re- 
versed pictures,  he  tried  all  sorts  of  experiments  with 
them,  among  other  things  putting  them  in  acid  which 
bit  into  the  plate  where  the  bitumen  did  not  protect 
it,  making  a sort  of  an  etching,  or  engraving,  in  which 
the  white  lines  were  changed  to  lines  engraved  upon 
the  metal. 

These  plates  when  engraved,  after  the  bitumen  had 
been  removed  entirely  (which  could  be  done  easily  by 
heat,  or  friction)  could  be  used  to  print  from  exactly 
like  plates  cut  with  lines  by  an  engraver.  One  of  these 
plates  still  exists,  and  a print  of  it  is  reproduced  in 
the  Photo-Miniature  for  March,  1904. 

Niepce  also  used  his  processes  in  attempts  to  fix  the 
image  in  the  camera  obscura,  using  paper  to  receive 
the  image.  It  is  also  said  that  he  used  chloride  of  sil- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  rilOTOGRAPlIY  235 


vei’  in  certain  of  his  experiments ; but  the  process  he 
brought  to  the  most  successful  results  was  that  with 
the  bitumen  on  metal  plates,  either  by  direct  printing 
or  in  the  camera.  And  the  same  general  method  is 
to-day  in  use  for  modern  photo-engraving,  and  a similar 
one  in  making  carbon  prints. 

In  writing  an  account  of  his  process  for  an  English 
friend,  Niepce  mentions  that  he  is  indebted  to  a certain 
J\I.  Daguerre,  of  Paris,  for  the  suggestion  that  glass 
could  be  used  instead  of  metal,  and  that  the  lines 
etched  on  glass  could  be  filled  with  ink,  causing  the 
drawing  to  be  visible  when  the  glass  plate  was  backed 
with  white  paper. 

Louis  Daguerre  was  a painter  living  about  nine 
miles  from  Paris,  a scientific  man  “much  esteemed 
for  his  goodness  and  geniality  of  character,”  as  an  old 
writer  puts  it.  Daguerre  was  born  about  ten  miles 
from  Paris  in  1787.  Ilis  father  was  crier  to  the  local 
court  in  Cormeilles,  his  mother  a villager.  The  boy 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools,  and  had  a strong 
taste  for  drawing.  He  went  into  an  architect’s  ollice, 
and  learned  to  make  tracings,  but  in  1803  entered  the 
shop  of  a scene  painter.  He  was  engaged  to  make 
panorama  paintings,  and  invented  or  planned  a 
Diorama,  a circular  building  around  which  pictures 
were  shown  to  spectators  on  a turning  platform.  Ho 
introduced  the  idea  of  lighting  these  pictures  from 
the  front,  and  then  from  the  back — so  as  to  bring  a 
new  picture  to  view  by  looking  through  the  first. 
He  also  showed  his  own  paintings  in  art  exhibitions. 
It  was  in  1824  that  he  began  his  experiments  with 
the  camera,  using  chloride  and  nitrate  of  silver,  as 
Wedgwood  had  done.  Two  years  later  he  began  to 


236  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PP]OPLE 


work  with  Niepce,  and  went  into  partnership  with 
him  in  1829. 

An  old  book  on  “ The  Camera  and  the  Pencil,”  by 
M.  A.  Root,  tells  how,  in  1825,  at  the  end  of  a lecture 
by  a distinguished  French  chemist,  a lady  came  to  ask 
a question,  saying,  “ I am  the  wife  of  Daguerre,  the 
painter.  For  some  time  he  has  let  the  idea  seize  him 
that  he  can  fix  the  image  of  the  camera.  Do  you 
think  it  possible  ? He  is  always  at  the  thought,  as  he 
can’t  sleep  at  night  for  it.  I am  afraid  he  is  out  of  his 
mind.  Do  you,  as  a man  of  science,  think  that  it  can 
ever  be  done,  or  is  he  mad  ? ” 

The  great  chemist,  Dumas,  said  : “ In  the  pres- 
ent state  of  knowledge  it  cannot  be  done,  but  I cannot 
say  that  it  will  always  remain  impossible,  nor  set  the 
man  who  seeks  to  do  it  down  as  mad.”  As  this  was 
fourteen  years  before  Daguerre’s  process  was  pub- 
lished, Root  well  says  that  it  gives  us  some  idea  of 
what  the  discovery  cost  him. 

These  two  investigators,  Niepce  and  Daguerre, 
used,  among  other  things,  iodine  to  darken  the  surface 
of  their  plates.  By  letting  the  vapour  of  iodine  — a 
substance  first  extracted  from  the  ashes  of  seaweeds, 
discovered  by  Courtois,  and  investigated  by  Humphry 
Davy  (who  reported  Wedgwood’s  work  and  assisted 
in  it)  — act  upon  the  surface  of  a silver  plate,  a com- 
pound formed  of  the  iodine  and  silver  was  left  upon 
the  surface  of  the  plate.  Like  other  silver  com- 
pounds, this  was  sensitive  to  light  after  a long  ex- 
posure, far  too  long  to  make  portraiture  possible. 
But,  owing  to  a most  remarkable  accident,  Daguerre 
made  a discovery  that  at  once  gave  him  a quick  proc- 
ess by  which  visible  images  could  be  formed  upon 


Courtesy  of  T.  IV.  Smitlie,  U.  S.  N.itioii.il  Muwttm 

Monument  to  Daguerre 

Ip.  the  grounds  of  the  National  .Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  237 


tlie  iodide.  Daguerre  had  been  exposing  some  silver 
plates  coated  with  the  iodide,  but  had  not  made  long 
enough  exposures  to  get  an  image  he  could  see.  lie 
put  the  plates  away  in  a closet  where  he  kept  chemic- 
als, and  upon  examining  them  at  a later  time  was 
astonished  to  find  that  both  showed  a visible  image. 
This,  he  reasoned,  must  have  been  caused  by  some  of 
the  chemicals  in  the  closet;  and  with  the  ingenuity  of 
a genius  he  patiently  went  to  work  to  find  out  which 
chemical  had  caused  the  images  to  appear. 

One  after  another  he  took  out  of  the  closet  a 
chemical  at  a time,  putting  a fresh  plate  like  the  first 
into  the  closet  after  each  time  a chemical  was  re- 
moved ; but  when  be  thought  he  had  taken  out  all  the 
chemical  substances  he  found  that  visible  images  were 
still  produced. 

At  length  he  discovered  upon  the  floor  a dish  hold- 
ing quicksilver,  which  he  had  hitherto  overlooked. 
Knowing  that  quicksilver  is  very  ready  to  evaporate, 
giving  off  vapour  even  when  slightly  warm,  he  tried 
the  experiment  of  allowing  the  vapour  of  the  slightly 
warmed  quicksilver  to  rise  against  the  surface  of  the 
silver  plate  coated  with  iodide.  “ To  his  intense  de- 
light,” says  Dr.  Vogel  in  his  “ Chemistry  of  Light  and 
Photography,”  “an  image  appeared,  and  the  world 
was  enriched  by  one  of  its  most  beautiful  dis- 
coveries.” 

This  process  discovered  by  Daguerre  consisted,  as 
will  be  seen,  of  the  following  steps:  A polished 

silver  plate  was  “ fumed,”  that  is,  exposed  to  the 
vapour  of  iodine.  The  vapour  made  with  the  surface  of 
the  silver  a chemical  union,  producing  the  chemical 
substance,  iodide  of  silver.  This  iodide  is  sensitive  to 


238  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


light.  On  being  exposed  to  the  light,  say  in  a 
camera,  no  image  is  at  first  seen  ; but  if  the  plate  be 
then  placed  over  a dish  of  mercury,  and  the  mercury 
slightly  warmed  so  as  to  give  off  a vapour,  the  mercury 
j)articles  combine  with  the  iodide  of  silver  more  or  less 
as  the  iodide  has  been  more  or  less  acted  on  by  the 
light,  and  so  produce  a darkened  image  made  up  of 
the  combining  of  the  mercury  with  the  iodide. 

Fortunately  for  Daguerre,  there  had  been  dis- 
covered before  this  time  at  least  two  chemicals  that 
would  wash  out  of  the  plate  those  silver  compounds 
that  had  not  been  affected  by  the  light,  without  dis- 
turbing the  parts  that  had  been  so  affected.  When  the 
unaffected  silver  was  washed  out,  of  course  the 
pictures  could  be  exposed  to  daylight  without  injury. 
Of  these  substances  we  shall  say  something  in  the 
next  chapter.  We  must  also  reserve  for  that  chapter 
an  account  of  the  work  of  Fox-Talbot,  whose  re- 
searches and  inventions  led  most  directly  to  modern 
ways  of  making  photographs. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


FROM  THE  DAGUERREOTYPE  TO  THE  DRY 
PLATE 

Seeking  to  fix  the  images  — Daguerre  uses  salt — Herschel  dis- 
covers hyposulphite  of  soda  to  be  the  best  fixer  — Objection  to  the 
daguerreotype  — Morse  and  Draper  work  together  in  America  — 
Fox-Talbot’s  invention  — He  makes  real  silver  prints  from  nega- 
tives— Draper’s  work  — He  uses  the  “chemical  focus’’  — The 
first  portrait  — Summary  of  the  work  of  invention — Niepce 
St.  Victor  introduces  albumen  — The  use  of  collodion  — Scott- 
Archer’s  wet  collodion  process  — The  seeking  for  a dry  process  — 
Dr.  Tanpenot’s  gelatine  plate  — Bennett  heats  the  emulsions 
— Dr.  Maddox’s  gelatine  plate  — The  making  of  emulsion  — 
Monckhoven  adds  ammonia — “Modern  photography”  begins 
— The  Petzval  lens  — Dr.  Vogel. 

To  make  the  nitrate  of  silver  prints  last,  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  and  Wedgwood  tried  long  washing 
in  water,  but  without  success.  Niepce,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  found  a way  of  making  sun-prints  that 
would  last,  but  these  were  his  bitumen  plates.  He 
could  not  fix  his  silver  prints.  Daguerre  was  the  first 
to  find  a solution  that  would  “ fix  ” silver  prints  by 
washing  away  the  parts  not  made  insoluble  by  light. 
He  used  a solution  of  ordinary  salt  — chloride  of 
sodium. 

In  1839,  Sir  John  Herschel,  the  English  astronomer 
and  chemist  — who  lived  until  1871 — showed  that 
hyposulphite  of  sodium  was  a far  better  solvent,  and 
Daguerre  at  once  adopted  this  substance,  which  has 
been  used  ever  since.  It  was  discovered  in  1799  by 

239 


240  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Cliaussier,  and  Herschel  had  described  its  effect  on  the 
silver  compounds  in  1819. 

The  Daguerreotypes  were  very  beautiful  pictures 
even  from  the  first,  and  the  process  was  rapidly  im- 
proved. 

The  improvements  were  needed.  For  after  the  first 
wonder  and  delight  over  the  new  process,  serious  ob- 
jections to  it  appeared.  The  pictures  were  very  deli- 
cate, being  ruined  by  the  slightest  touch,  and  if  ex- 
posed to  the  air  they  soon  were  spoiled.  A chemical 
treatment  due  to  a Frenchman  named  Fizeau  made 
them  more  permanent.  A mixture  of  hypo  and  of 
chloride  of  gold  was  poured  upon  them  and  evap- 
orated by  heat.  This  left  the  gold  on  the  image,  mak- 
ing it  both  clearer  and  more  lasting. 

Put  under  glass,  and  viewed  at  the  right  angle,  the 
pictures  were  beautiful  as  works  of  photography,  but 
the  long  exposure  necessary  caused  portraits  to  be  un- 
satisfactory. In  his  “ House  of  the  Seven  Gables,” 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  points  out  the  defects,  saying 
that  the  faces  were  “ hard  or  stern  ” and  the  sitters 
“conscious  of  looking  unamiable.”  This  in  view  of 
the  twenty  minutes’  exposure  sometimes  required  does 
not  seem  unnatural.  The  cost  of  the  pictures  was  ex- 
cessive— from  five  dollars  up  to  twenty-four,  the  lat- 
ter price  being  charged  for  Daguerre’s  own  work. 

But  many  workers  helped  to  improve  the  processes. 
Dr.  Goddard,  of  Philadelphia,  and  another  Goddard, 
an  Englishman,  both  treated  the  plates  with  bromine 
fumes,  and  a Frenchman,  Claudet,  used  chlorine  ; both 
these  treatments  made  the  plates  more  sensitive,  and 
reduced  the  necessary  exposure  to  from  five  minutes 
to  one  minute — or  even  less  in  the  best  light.  Yet 


FROM  DAGUERREOTYPE  TO  DRY  PLATE  241 


even  at  this  time — 1840  and  1841,  the  very  long  ex- 
posures were  often  necessary  where  lenses  were  im- 
perfect or  conditions  were  unfavourable. 

Daguerre’s  process  had  been  made  public  early  in 
January,  1839,  in  return  for  a pension  of  6,000  francs 
($1,200)  to  Daguerre  and  4,000  to  the  younger  Niepce. 
But  in  1839,  Professor  Morse  (of  telegraph  fame)  had 
visited  Daguerre  and  seen  some  of  his  pictures.  Re- 
turning to  America,  Morse  met  with  Professor  John 
W.  Draper,  who  had  for  many  years  been  interested 
in  the  study  of  light  and  its  chemical  effects  — using 
chemically  prepared  or  “ sensitive  ” paper  for  the  pur- 
pose. Draper  had  repeated  the  experiments  of  Wedg- 
wood and  Davy,  and  had  especially  studied  the  work 
of  Fox-Talbot,  an  Englishman  whose  researches  upon 
photography  had  been  carried  on  several  years  before 
Daguerre’s  process  was  published.  Talbot  was  an 
amateur,  born  in  1800,  and  died  in  1877.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  and  Trinity  College,  and  being 
rich  could  afford  to  give  his  time  wholly  to  the  scien- 
tific studies  that  interested  him,  and  in  them  he  spent 
his  life. 

Talbot’s  experiments  began  in  1834,  but  he  had  not 
published  his  \vork  when  Daguerre’s  invention  was 
announced.  Three  weeks  after  this  announcement, 
Faraday  showed  some  of  Talbot’s  prints,  and  on  Jan- 
uary 31,  1839,  Fox-Talbot  read  a full  account  of  his 
process  before  the  London  Royal  Society.  Talbot 
made  prints  on  paper,  first  salted  and  then  soaked 
with  nitrate  of  silver,  and  fixed  them  in  iodide  of 
potassium  and  salt.  He  also  devised  a method  of  de- 
veloping — possibly  taking  the  general  idea  from  Da- 
guerre — by  using  gallic  acid.  This  process  was 


242  PIIOTOGRAPUY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


finally  known  as  “ Talbotype,”  though  patented  as  the 
“ Calotype  ” process.  It  was  rapid  as  compared  with 
the  Daguerreotype,  and  was  also  a means  of  making 
prints^  rather  than  a positive  picture. 

Professor  Draper  repeated  Talbot’s  experiments, 
and  tried  to  shorten  exposures  by  using  lenses  of  wide 
aperture  and  short  focus,  and  in  1839  he  learned  of 
and  tried  Daguerre’s  process  with  success  on  buildings 
and  other  outdoor  objects.  Then,  with  a lens  of  five 
inches  diameter  and  seven  inches  focus,  he  attempted 
a portrait  — dusting  the  sitter’s  face  with  flour,  Vind 
arranging  his  camera  so  that  the  plate  would  be  at 
the  chemical  focus  of  the  rays.  After  certain  fail- 
ures, he  succeeded  in  photographing  a sitter  — mak- 
ing the  first  photographs  of  a human  being  from  life. 
At  this  time  the  Daguerreotype  process  was  used  for 
making  landscape  and  still-life  pictures  and  required 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes’  exposure.  Pro- 
fessor Morse  was  at  work  during  the  same  time,  and 
declares  that  he  cannot  say  whether  “ he  [Draper]  or 
myself  took  the  first  portrait.”  After  a while  they 
worked  together,  Morse,  as  an  artist,  taking  especially 
the  artistic  side  of  the  work,  and  charging  his  sit- 
ters for  the  portraits. 

There  are  other  claims  as  to  the  earliest  photo- 
graphic portraits,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to 
favour  that  of  Professor  Draper. 

To  sum  up  a little,  now  that  we  have  reached  the 
first  portraiture,  we  may  remember  that  the  achro- 
matic lens  — a necessary  step  — came  from  Hall  and 
Dollond ; "Wedgwood  printed  with  nitrate  of  silver 
in  the  camera  ; Daguerre  found  out  the  printing  with 
iodide  on  a silver  plate,  and  developing  with  mercury 


FEOM  DAGUEREEOTYPE  TO  DEY  PLATE  243 


and  fixing  with  salt ; Fox-Talbot  printed  on  paper 
with  silver  salts,  developed  with  gallic  acid  and  made 
negatives ; Ilerschel  taught  the  fixing  of  the  image 
with  hyposulphite;  Draper  probably  made  the  first 
portrait. 

But  it  should  be  said  also  that  the  developing  with 
nutgalls  (gallic  acid)  is  due  to  Reade,  an  English 
clergyman,  who  published  a method  in  1839,  and  that 
Fizeau  and  the  Goddards  used  the  chlorides  and 
bromides  of  silver  to  make  plates  more  sensitive.  To 
Herschel  is  due  the  use  of  the  terms  positive'''  and 
'‘'’negatived  About  this  time  also,  1844,  a worker 
named  Claudet  suggested  the  use  of  red  or  yellow 
light  in  the  working  room  to  prevent  spoiling  the 
plates.  So  great  were  the  advances  that  had  been 
made  in  the  years  from  1839  to  1850. 

In  1851  came  a process  that  really  gave  the  begin- 
nings of  the  marvellous  modern  photography.  The 
Talbotype  had  been  printed  through  paper,  and  often 
showed  the  paper’s  grain  ; and  this  led  to  waxing  it  to 
make  it  more  transparent.  Herschel  had  suggested  the 
use  of  glass-plates,  but  his  method  did  not  prove  prac- 
tical, until  a relative  of  Niepce,  Niepce  de  St. Victor,  saw 
the  need  of  some  substance  to  hold  the  silver  salts  to 
the  plate,  and  introduced  in  1847  the  use  of  albumen 
and  starch  for  that  purpose.  His  process  was  pub- 
lished the  next  year,  and  improved  and  extended  by 
two  other  Frenchmen  — Blanquart-Evrard  using  paper 
coated  with  the  albumen  for  printings,  and  Le  Gray 
using  collodion  (a  solution  of  pyroxyline,  a kind  of 
gun-cotton)  to  replace  the  albumen  in  the  plates.  The 
inventor  of  collodion  was  a Boston  medical  student, 
John  Parker  Maynard,  who  in  1848  advised  its  use  as 


244  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


a medical  plaster,  and  gave  the  substance  its  name 
from  the  Greek  word  “ kolla,”  glue.  Then  an  English- 
man, Scott- Archer,  made  the  collodion  process  certain 
and  practical. 

He  was  a sculptor,  and  studied  photography  to  pre- 
serve records  of  his  work.  Between  1847  and  1850  h<B 
tried  the  calotype  and  the  daguerreotype,  but  soon 
improved  on  these  processes  by  using  collodion  and 
his  methods  soon  took  the  place  of  both.  Archer’s 
method  was  to  dissolve  cotton-wool  in  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  making  “ pyroxyline.”  This  was  washed 
and  dissolved  in  ether  and  alcohol,  making  collodion. 
To  this  was  added  iodide  of  potassium  and  potassium 
bromide,  and  the  mixture  poured  on  a glass-plate  and 
allowed  to  set.  The  plate  is  then  sensitized  in  silver 
nitrate,  put  into  a holder  (still  wet)  and  exposed  in  the 
camera  for  “ from  one  moment  to  a quarter  of  an 
hour.”  It  was  developed  in  gallic  acid,  acetic  acid, 
and  water,  and  fixed  in  hypo. 

This  is  the  “ wet  collodion  ” or  wet-plate  process. 
It  gave  most  delicate  and  beautiful  negatives,  or  if 
preferred  a positive  could  be  had  by  making  a short 
exposure,  and  whitening  the  negative  in  bichloride  of 
mercury.  The  plate  so  treated"  was  then  backed  by  a 
black  background,  and  gave  an  effect  like  the  daguer- 
reotype, but  more  lasting  and  very  much  cheaper. 
When  such  a picture  was  covered  by  another  glass 
plate,  the  “ambrotype”  was  formed, — a kind  of  pic- 
ture very  well  known  years  ago,  say  from  1854  to  1807. 

The  wet-plate  process  is  still  used  in  making  plates 
for  lantern-slides,  delicate  negatives  for  reproduction, 
and  wherever  the  finest  detail  is  needed,  as  in  astro- 
nomical work  or  scientific  photography.  The  claim  is 


FROM  DAGUERREOTYPE  TO  DRY  PLATE  245 


made  that  it  still  produces  the  most  beautiful  of  nega- 
tives. 

But  though  the  wet-plate  process  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  first  step  in  modern  photography,  it  was 
not  convenient  to  have  the  silver-bath  always  ready. 
Consequently  many  efforts  were  made  to  unite  the 
silver  with  the  collodion  coating,  and  then  to  dry  the 
plates  without  their  losing  sensitiveness.  A French- 
man, Dr.  Taupenot,  was  the  first  to  succeed,  though 
many  improvements  designed  to  keep  the  plates  moist 
were  tried  before  the  really  <7;’y-plate  was  devised. 
Taupenot  coated  the  sensitive  plate  with  albumen, 
dipped  it  in  silver  nitrate,  and  found  that  the  dried 
plate  would  keep  its  sensitiveness  for  six  weeks  or  two 
months.  To  this  process  the  main  objection  was  the 
plates  required  about  six  times  the  exposure  of  the 
wet-plates.  There  were  many  preservatives  suggested, 
— such  as  sugar,  beer,  pyrogallic  acid, — but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  describe  the  many  processes,  for  the  im- 
provement that  was  to  be  most  successful  took  another 
course.  This  was  the  making  of  an  “emulsion”  — a 
mixture  containing  all  the  chemicals  and  substances 
necessary  to  coat  the  plate.  Many  tried,  but  the 
earliest  to  succeed  were  Sayce  and  Bolton,  of  Liver- 
pool, who  formed  an  emulsion  containing  bromide  or 
iodide  of  silver,  which  was  quickly  so  improved  as  to 
become  most  valuable.  This  was  early  in  the  sixties, 
and  they  used  a collodion  mixture.  Then  in  1871  a 
Dr.  Maddox  substituted  gelatine  for  collodion,  and 
thus  introduced  the  gelatino-bromide  process, — and 
this  proved  to  be  a great  advance  though  it  required 
the  efforts  of  a number  of  workers  to  find  out  just 
what  was  needed  to  make  perfect  dry-plates. 


246  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Harrison,  in  his  “ History  of  Photography  ” says 
that  in  an  exhibition  of  photographs  held  in  1876-7  in 
Edinburgh,  709  exhibitors  used  the  wet-plate  and  105 
the  dry-plate  process.  In  1878,  however,  Charles 
Bennet,  an  amateur,  showed  gelatine  negatives  in  Lon- 
don which  were  so  good  and  produced  by  so  short  an 
exposure  that  he  was  asked  to  explain  his  method.  He 
published  his  process,  and  showed  that  his  results 
came  from  having  heated  the  emulsion  from  two  to 
seven  days,  which  greatly  increased  its  sensitiveness 
to  light.  Then  another  worker,  Stuart  Wortley, 
shortened  the  time  and  increased  the  temperature ; 
George  Mansfield  boiled  part  of  the  emulsion  for  ten 
' minutes,  and  then  added  the  rest.  Still  another.  Dr. 
Monckhoven,  added  ammonia  to  the  emulsion  and 
gained  the  sensitive  silver  bromide  without  heating. 

Thus,  by  1880,  says  Mr.  Bayley,  “ gelatine  dry -plates 
were  fairly  on  the  market,  exposures  had  been  reduced 
to  fractions  of  a second,  and  modern  photography  had 
‘ arrived.’  ” • 

The  change  was  to  make  photography  over,  to  trans- 
form it  from  a pursuit  possible  only  to  a few  devoted 
professionals  and  amateur  chemists  to  a universal 
helper  in  the  affairs  of  mankind.  The  wet-collodion 
process,  though  producing  exquisite  results,  required 
for  outdoor  work  a cumbersome  equipment  including 
“a  tent,  a nitrate  bath,  a good  supply  of  water.”  The 
longer  exposures  caused  the  plate  to  drj',  and  spoil  the 
picture,  or,  in  cold  weather,  to  freeze.  Thus  though 
there  were  many  amateurs  in  the  years  from  1853  to 
1858,  they  found  their  path  a rocky  one,  and  Harrison 
tells  how  “stains  of  inky  blackness  [from  the  nitrate 
solution]  on  the  hands  and  clothes  soon  earned  for  the 


FROM  DAGUERREOTYPE  TO  DRY  PLATE  247 


infant  science  the  appellation  of  ‘ the  black  art,’  ” and 
caused  the  disfavour  into  which  photography  as  an 
amusement  soon  fell.  In  1857  the  Duke  of  Parma 
used  visiting  cards  on  which  a little  photographic  por- 
trait took  the  place  of  his  name,  and  Disderi,  the  pho- 
tographer to  Napoleon  the  Third  brought  out  soon 
after  the  little  card  pictures  known  as  “ Cartes-de- 
visite,”  a name  very  familiar  to  a past  generation. 
The  wet-collodion  process  was  “ smelly,”  dirty,  troub- 
lesome, and  required  the  most  elaborate  care.  The  pic- 
tures were  excellent,  but  could  be  made  only  by  ex- 
perts. Whereas  by  the  dry-plate  process,  while  the 
expert  can  still  produce  the  finest  results,  every  person 
can  make  good  pictures,  with  little  time  and  little 
labour,  and  without  elaborate  apparatus  or  a great 
battery  of  chemicals  in  a specially  prepared  dark 
room. 

Besides  all  this,  the  bringing  in  of  the  dry-plate  en- 
abled photography  to  become  automatic,  so  to  speak. 
It  was  no  longer  necessary  for  the  photographer  to  re- 
main with  his  camera.  The  exposure  could  be  made 
mechanically,  and  thus  the  camera  could  be  left  in 
position  for  the  shutter  to  be  operated  by  a wild  ani- 
mal touching  a cord,  a thermometer  or  barometer 
that  made  an  electric  contact,  a clock  that  at  a certain 
hour  released  the  shutter  and  so  on. 

One  of  the  men  who  contributed  greatly  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  photography  was  Professor  Petzval,  of 
Vienna.  He  saw  that  the  daguerreotype  and  the  wet- 
plate  processes  would  be  greatly  aided  by  lenses  bet- 
ter than  those  in  use,  and  in  1841  worked  out  the 
problem  set  him,  inventing  a sort  of  lens  known  by 
his  name.  The  Petzval  lens  gave  good  central  defini- 


248  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


tion,  and  could  be  used  at  a very  wide  aperture 
(f  /3  or  f /4),  being  consequently  exceedingly  rapid. 
It  was  an  excellent  portrait  lens,  and  its  faults  were 
such  only  as  made  it  unsuitable  for  landscape  photog- 
raphy, for  it  lacked  mainly  in  even  lighting,  depth  of 
focus,  and  astigmatism. 

Another  photographer,  whose  work  is  of  increasing 
importance,  is  Dr.  Hermann  Vogel,  of  Berlin,  the  dis- 
coverer of  means  for  making  plates  sensitive  to  the 
red  and  yellow  rays.  His  method  was  to  stain  the 
film  which  made  it  respond  to  the  rays  that  otherwise 
would  not  affect  it  or  would  affect  it  very  slightly. 
This  was  in  1873,  but  the  full  importance  of  his  work 
was  not  appreciated  for  many  years,  though  it  was  to 
become  the  foundation  for  the  photography  of  colours, 
both  in  their  true  values  when  rendered  by  white, 
black,  or  gra}',  and  also  in  their  true  tints  — as  is  to- 
day done  by  several  different  processes,  and  as  will  be 
increasingly  done  in  the  future.  All  these  process  im- 
provements led  also  to  improved  apparatus. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

A GLANCE  AT  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY 

Dry -plate  photography  slowly  developed  — The  first  “detective” 
cameras  — The  earliest  “Kodak”  — The  roll  film — The  daylight 
film  — Improvements  in  printing  — Combination  prints  — Vignet- 
ting — Enlarging  — Chromophotography  — The  cinematograph  — 
Uses  of  the  “ moving  pictures  ” — The  coming  of  new  developers 
— The  photographing  of  colours  — Orthochromatic  photography 
— Dyeing  the  plates  — The  colour-screen  — Importance  of  ortho- 
chromatic photography  in  making  prints  in  colour. 

With  the  coming  of  the  dry-plate,  that  was  ob- 
tainable everywhere,  would  keep  indefinitely,  was 
easy  to  use,  and  rapid  enough  for  taking  objects  in 
motion,  modern  photography  began. 

Yet  the  very  rapidity  of  these  new  plates  was  at 
first  a cause  of  their  unpopularity.  The  older  pho- 
tographers simply  could  not  believe  in  the  short  ex- 
posures. They  were  used  to  the  wet-plate  process, 
had  learned  to  time  their  exposures  accordingly,  and 
for  a long  time  would  greatly  overtime  the  new  dry- 
plates  and  thus  either  fog  them  or  get  ver3»^  thin  im- 
ages by  failing  to  give  long  development.  Besides, 
they  would  develop  by  a jmllow  light  that  was  not 
safe  enough  for  the  new  and  more  sensitive  plates. 

Consequently,  during  the  years  from  1874  to  1880, 
photographers  were  learning  the  use  of  the  dr}'-plates, 
and  changing  from  the  collodion  to  the  gelatine  plates, 
while  the  experimenters  were  constantly  improving 
the  new  methods.  But  by  1880  the  new  dry-plates 

249 


250  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


were  ready  for  general  use,  and  had  in  most  cases 
taken  the  place  of  the  wet-collodion  plates.  In  the 
next  ten  years,  a number  of  manufacturers  had  put 
excellent  dry-plates  upon  the  market.  In  our  own 
country  Cramer  and  Norden  of  St.  Louis,  and  John 
Carbutt  of  Philadelphia,  were  pioneers,  and  both  the 
Cramer  and  the  Carbutt  plates  have  been  well  known 
ever  since.  When  ready  prepared  plates  were  thus 
available,  many  were  induced  to  take  up  photography, 
and  there  was  a demand  for  small,  portable  cameras. 
From  the  amusing  notion  that  these  would  be  especially 
valuable  to  detectives  in  securing  portraits  of  criminals, 
or  at  least  that  they  might  be  so  used,  the  earliest 
hand-cameras  were  designed  to  be  unobtrusive  black 
boxes,  or  were  even  made  to  look  like  books,  luncheon 
cases,  or  other  harmless  objects  that  (it  was  believed) 
would  deceive  the  unwary  law-breaker.  The  first 
practical  camera  of  this  sort  was  invented  (according 
to  the  Americana  Cyclopedia)  by  a German  named 
Schmid,  and  introduced  by  the  E.  & II.  T.  Anthony 
Company  of  New  York,  and  their  example  was  soon 
followed  by  many  others  as  the  number  of  amateurs 
increased.  About  the  same  time  with  the  portable 
box-camera,  John  Carbutt  brought  out  plates  which 
were  upon  cut  pieces  of  celluloid  instead  of  glass,  and, 
being  unbreakable  and  light,  were  especially  adapted 
for  the  hand-camera. 

The  next  marked  improvement  was  the  introduction 
by  George  Eastman,  in  1888,  of  the  first  “Kodak.” 
The  name  was  a coined  one,  without  meaning,  but  has 
been  accepted  by  the  dictionaries  as  well  expressing 
in  sound  the  little  “snap-shot”  camera.  The  earliest 
kodak  was  a narrow,  square-fronted,  oblong  box  that 


A GLANCE  AT  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY  251 


contained  a long  roll  of  sensitized  paper  sufficient  for 
taking  one  hundred  pictures.  This  idea  of  taking 
negatives  on  a roll  of  sensitive  material  was  patented 
in  England  in  1854,  but  the  roll  seems  to  have  been 
made  of  cut  sheets  gummed  together.  Then  in  1871 
came  an  improvement  in  the  roller  idea,  by  a Hungarian 
engineer  named  Warneka,  who  added  several  ways  of 
judging  how  much  of  the  roll  had  been  wound  up  each 
time.  But  the  Eastman  roller  device  was  superior  in 
all  respects  to  all  that  had  been  devised  before  it,  and 
so  succeeded.  Within  a year  celluloid  took,  in  the 
kodak,  the  place  of  the  paper,  the  little  cameras  became 
very  popular,  and  were  in  the  hands  of  tourists  every- 
where. The  main  improvements  since  then  have  been 
the  introduction  of  “ daylight  ” rolls  of  film,  protected 
from  the  light  by  ends  of  black  paper  which  wind 
about  the  rolled  celluloid  and  its  coating,  the  adapting 
of  the  extension  camera  in  the  place  of  the  more  bulky 
box-form  ; the  various  “ magazine  cameras  ” holding 
glass  plates  or  cut  films  so  they  may  be  brought  one 
by  one  into  the  place  for  exposing ; the  introduction, 
very  recently,  of  the  film-pack,  which  is  a removable 
paper-box  magazine  holding  cut  films,  and  the  many 
methods  of  developing  without  need  of  a dark  room. 
Of  the  different  devices  for  regulating  length  of  ex- 
posure— the  shutters,  diaphragms,  and  so  on,  we  have 
already  spoken.  But  some  note  must  be  taken  of  the 
improvements  in  printing  methods,  before  speaking  of 
the  sorts  of  work  possible  to  modern  photography. 

The  plain  silvered  paper  as  used  in  the  earliest  days 
was  followed  by  the  albumen  papers  that  gave  a 
surface  image,  and  one  of  finer  detail ; then  came  the 
“aristo,”  a highly  glossy  paper  with  a chloride  of 


252  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


silver  coating ; and  both  of  these  papers  are  of  course 
still  in  common  use.  In  fact,  most  of  the  modern 
processes  can  be  traced  to  earlier  forms,  of  which  they 
are  improvements,  and  the  general  nature  of  them  has 
already  been  described.  But  we  may  note  the  be- 
ginnings, as  given  by  Harrison’s  “ History  of  Pho- 
tography,” of  certain  devices  in  the  making  of  prints. 
He  gives  the  first  “ combination  printing,”  as  exhibited 
in  1855,  in  Glasgow  — a landscape  photograph  into 
which  a figure  had  been  printed  from  another  negative. 
Three  years  later  Otto  Sarony  patented  a combination 
process  by  which  parts  of  negative  films  were  to  bo 
united  to  make  a new  negative  — a thing  afterward 
done  by  cutting  up  paper-negatives.  Rejlander,in  1857, 
printed  portions  of  many  negatives  on  a single  photo- 
graph by  masking  parts  of  the  paper  with  black  velvet, 
and  work  printed  from  five,  nine,  and  various  num- 
bers of  negatives  masked,  was  shown  in  England  by 
II.  P.  Robinson.  The  addition  of  clouds  in  landscape 
photography  began  in  the  fifties,  and  is  much  prac- 
ticed, the  clouds  being  added  by  a second  printing 
(the  sky  being  masked  during  the  first),  or  being 
painted  in  some  light  resisting  tint  (such  as  India  ink) 
on  the  landscape  negative. 

“ Vignetting  ” is  a means  of  causing  a print  or  nega- 
tive to  be  softened,  shaded,  or  lost  around  the  edges. 
It  was  described  as  far  back  as  1853.  It  can  be  done 
in  the  camera  or  in  the  printing  frame.  In  the  camera 
vignetting  is  caused  by  interposing  between  the  object 
photographed  and  the  plate  a screen  or  mask  which  is 
cut  to  allow  part  of  the  object  to  be  plainly  and  clearly 
focussed,  and  to  interrupt  the  light  rays  beyond  the 
clear  portions  of  the  picture.  The  screen  or  mask  is 


A GLANCE  AT  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY  253 


out  of  focuSy  and  has  a saw-tooth  or  fringed  edge.  It 
may  be  put  in  front  of  the  lens,  or  inside  the  bellows 
of  an  extension  camera. 

In  making  a print,  the  vignetter  is  supported  a few 
inches  from  the  glass  side  of  the  negative,  and  allows 
part  of  the  image  to  print  clearly  while  the  rest  shades 
off  to  white.  Adjustable  vignetters,  which  may  be 
arranged  to  make  any  shape  of  hole,  are  sold  at  photo- 
graphic supply  stores  ; but  it  is  quite  easy  to  cut  your 
own  vignetter  for  any  particular 
negative  from  paper  — using 
light  tissue  to  get  grayish  ef- 
fects ; or  to  shut  out  light  en- 
tirely, the  black  paper  in  which 
plates  and  printing  paper  are 
wrapped.  When  printing  with 
a vignetter,  it  is  sometimes  well 
to  keep  the  frame  in  motion,  so 
as  to  avoid  all  possibility  of  the 
vignette  edges  showing  clearly. 

A vignette  on  a black  back- 
ground may  be  made  by  first  printing  the  picture,  and 
then  masking  the  central  portion  while  allowing  the 
rest  to  be  fully  printed  out. 

Enlargements  were  made  in  1875  by  Valentine 
Blanchard,  who  threw  an  enlarged  image  through  a 
negative  upon  sensitive  paper,  thus  making  a trans- 
parency, or  positive.  This  was  used  to  print  a 
negative  which  was  made  transparent  by  waxing, 
and  from  the  second  negative  were  made  enlarged 
prints. 

With  the  ability  to  obtain  instantaneous  photo- 
graphs came  devices  for  taking  a great  number  of  pic- 


254  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


tures  in  quick  succession,  so  as  to  give  the  history  of 
an  action  or  movement.  Then  followed  other  devices 
for  showing  such  photographs  in  rapid  motion,  so  as  to 
reproduce  the  action.  In  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
Report  for  1901  is  a history  of  these  arts  — “ chrono- 
photography  ” being  the  name  given  them.  The 
earliest  mentioned  is  an  invention  of  an  astronomer 
named  Jansen  who  in  1873  made  a camera  in  which  a 
circular  plate  turned  so  as  to  take  successive  pictures 
of  the  planet  Venus  while  crossing  the  sun.  Other 
inventors  had  seen  the  possibility  of  taking  such  pic- 
tures of  objects  in  motion  as  far  back  as  1857,  1861, 
and  1864 ; but  photography  was  not  able  to  do  the 
work  at  so  early  a date. 

In  1878,  Muybridge,  of  San  Francisco,  took  by 
means  of  a row  of  cameras  (12  or  24)  a set  of  views 
showing  the  gaits  of  the  horse  in  motion,  and  also  of 
other  animals.  Anshiitz,  of  Vienna,  followed  the  same 
method  with  the  quicker  gelatine  plates,  soon  after- 
ward. In  1882,  Dr.  J.  Marey,  a French  scientific 
worker,  arranged  a revolving  shutter  that  made  ex- 
posures at  measured  times,  each  on  a different  part  of 
a sensitive  plate.  Next  came  the  “ photographic  gun  ” 
which  took  the  pictures  on  a revolving  plate,  and  a 
camera  which  turned  on  a pivot  so  as  to  follow  a mov- 
ing object,  and  then  of  one  into  which  a moving  mir- 
ror reflected  the  images.  Butin  1887,  Marey,  owing 
to  the  invention  of  kodak  paper  film,  was  able  to  use 
a moving  strip  for  taking  the  pictures ; and  when 
transparent  films  were  made,  these  pictures  could  be 
both  taken  and  exhibited  by  means  of  the  lantern 
when  changed  to  positives.  Many  imperfect  forms  of 
apparatus  were  devised,  but  none  was  satisfactory  un- 


A GLANCE  AT  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY  255 


til  Thomas  A.  Edison  found  a way  of  causing  the  mov- 
ing film  to  be  viewed  at  just  the  right  intervals,  and 
brought  out  his  “ Kinetoscope  ” in  1894,  enabling  one 
spectator  to  see  the  motion  pictures  — as  in  the  “slot 
machines  ” now  so  well  known.  But  a French  in- 
ventor, Lumiere,  brought  out  the  next  year  his  “ Cine- 
matograph,” which  was  a clever  machine  for  catching, 
moving  and  releasing  the  film  at  the  right  rate  and 
without  injuring  it. 

Marey  tells  also  of  later  improvements  upon  the 
motion  picture  machines  adapting  them  to  various 
purposes.  But  he  points  out  that  when  run  at  the 
natural  rate  of  speed,  the  motion-picture  does  no  more 
than  repeat  what  the  eye  has  seen.  By  running  the 
films  more  slowly,  quick  motions  (as,  trotting  of  a 
horse  or  flying  of  a bird)  may  be  understood  and 
studied  ; by  running  them  more  quickly  (as,  repeating 
in  a short  time  a series  of  pictures  taken  at  long  inter- 
vals) we  may  get  a clear  idea  of  processes  usually  slow 
— as  the  changes  of  an  insect  in  its  metamorphosis,  the 
growth  of  a plant,  or  even  the  putting  together  of  a 
great  piece  of  mechanism  or  the  erection  of  a building. 

Thus  slow  motions  may  be  hastened,  quick  ones 
made  slow.  In  this  way  all  motion  may  be  studied, 
and  its  laws  understood. 

The  article  from  which  we  quote  gives  many  useful 
applications  of  chronophotography.  Though  they 
may  not  seem  now  to  be  within  reach  of  the  amateur, 
yet  they  are  more  nearly  within  his  power  than  even 
the  simplest  processes  were  only  a few  years  ago. 
What  would  Wedgwood,  Herschel  or  Daguerre  have 
thought  of  a modern  “ watch  camera,”  fitting  the  vest- 
pocket  and  capable  of  making  a dozen  or  two  perfect 


25G  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


negatives,  each  in  an  instant,  and  each  capable  of 
enlargement? 

Of  course  we  need  not  explain  all  the  tricks  and 
dodges  used  in  making  “ motion  pictures,”  since  they 
depend  mainly  on  the  fact  that  the  instrument  can  be 
stopped,  and  any  desired  change  made  in  the  scene 
photographed.  But  we  may  make  the  suggestion  that 
motion-photographs  ought  to  be  largely  used  in 
educating  the  young,  since  by  means  of  the  cinemato- 
graph almost  any  phenomenon  or  happening  or  proc- 
ess may  be  exhibited  in  the  class-room.  The  move- 
ments of  the  planets  of  our  solar  system  might  readily 
be  thus  exhibited. 

The  chemical  side  of  photography  has  kept  place 
with  the  improvement  in  the  making  of  plates  and  the 
devising  of  cameras  that  will  take  advantage  of  the 
quickness  of  plates.  Niepce,  it  will  be  remembered, 
developed  by  dissolving  bitumen  ,by  oil  of  lavender ; 
Daguerre  used  the  vapour  of  mercury  ; pyrogallic  acid 
brought  out  the  images  in  the  calotype  process  and  on 
the  collodion  wet-plate.  Ferrous  sulphate  was  also 
used  in  the  collodion  process.  Then  came  “alkaline” 
development,  in  which  ammonia  aided  the  action  of 
the  pyro ; and  this  in  turn  has  been  often  replaced 
by  carbonates  of  potash  and  of  soda  — which  have  a 
similar  effect.  Ferrous  oxalate  was  suggested  as  a 
developer  in  1877,  and  in  1882  it  was  found  that 
sodium  sulphite  tended  to  prevent  pyro  from  becom- 
ing brown  and  staining  the  plates.  In  1889  came 
what  are  known  as  the  “coal-tar  developers” — such 
as  eikonogen,  metol,  ortol,  and  so  on,  of  which  more 
has  been  said  in  speaking  of  the  chemistry  of  pho- 
tography. 


CJD  c/) 


H.  S 

C 77  fi 


u 

u« 

u 

c/: 

b 

3 

;S 

< 


o •-  ? 
O s -2 


c w — 
rt  rt  1) 

w V £ 

> 5c  c 

Ta 

SX  t/;  <— 

'S  J 

5 ^ 

"“  '«5  • — 


Courtesy  of  American  Photography 


A GLANCE  AT  ^lODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY  257 


Especially  modern  are  the  processes  that  give  us 
prints  or  negatives  in  natural  colours,  and  those  that 
try  to  interpret  colours  in  the  right  relations  as  felt  by 
the  eye.  The  reader  will  see  that  here,  in  a sentence, 
are  a number  of  subjects.  These  are  the  taking  of  a 
negative  or  positive  in  natural  colours  ; the  making  of 
prints  in  colours ; and  the  making  of  correct  colour- 
value  prints. 

We  shall  speak  of  each  in  turn,  taking  up  first  the 
question  of  making  correct  colour-value  prints.  This, 
from  two  Greek  words  for  “ right  ” 6p0d<i  (orthos)  and 
“ colour”  x/j<Dua (chroma)  is  called  orthochromatic  pho- 
tography, or  sometimes  “ isochromatic,”  or  “ equal  ” 
colour  photography.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
weak  action  of  the  red  and  yellow  rays  on  the  pho- 
tographic plate,  and  strong  action  of  the  violet  and 
blue  ra}'^s.  From  this  it  results  that  ordinary  photo- 
graphs do  not  show  things  in  the  same  relation  of  light 
and  shade  that  the  eyes  see.  To  correct  this  to  some 
extent  is  the  object  of  orthochromatic  photography. 
Dr.  Vogel  discovered  in  1873  that  by  staining  the 
plates  with  various  dyes  (yellow  and  red)  they  became 
less  sensitive  to  the  stronger  rays,  and  so  gave  better 
representations  of  the  brightness  or  darkness  of  things 
as  the  eye  sees  them.  This  idea  was  followed  up  by 
many  workers,  and  various  dyes  were  tried,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  being  eosin  — a derivative  from  coal-tar. 
This  was  applied  in  1882-3  to  the  gelatine  bromide 
plates,  and  they  were  made  commercially  in  England, 
while  in  1886  Carbutt  of  Philadelphia  made  such 
plates  in  America,  and  others  soon  followed.  Many 
different  dyes  were  used,  either  in  the  emulsion  or  for 
soaking  plates  afterward.  Amateurs  will  find  many 


258  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


directions  given  for  making  plates  orthochromatic, 
but  it  is  easy  to  buy  the  plates  ready  made.  But  no 
dye  was  found  that  could  prevent  the  violet  and  blue 
rays  from  doing  more  than  their  share  in  affecting  the 
plate  — that  is  more  than  they  should  do  when  com- 
pared with  their  effect  on  the  eye.  Consequently  work- 
ers put  before  the  lens  a coloured  glass  or  “ screen  ” 
which,  letting  the  others  pass,  held  back  the  too  active 
rays  or  obstructed  them.  The  glass  or  screen  is  some- 
times called  a “ ray  filter.”  It  stopped  the  non-lumi- 
nous  violet  rays,  and  left  the  eye-affecting  rays  to  af- 
fect the  plate. 

But  of  course  this  greatly  decreased  the  light  action, 
and  so  made  longer  exposures  necessary  when  a screen 
is  used.  "Without  a screen  the  plates  should  be  ex- 
posed according  to  the  general  colour  of  the  subject, 
remembering  that  the  orthochromatic  plates  are  more 
sensitive  to  red  or  yellow,  and  less  to  violet,  blue,  and 
chemical  (ultra-violet)  rays.  Consequently  for  yellow 
and  red  subjects  or  subjects  lighted  by  yellow  or  red 
lights  (as  at  sunset  or  in  the  early  morning)  ortho- 
chromatic plates  need  slightly  less  exposures.  In  yel- 
low or  red  lighting  the  use  of  the  screen  is  not  neces- 
sary, as  the  light  has  a similar  effect.  With  a screen, 
the  colour  of  the  screen  has  to  be  taken  into  account. 
Follow  the  maker’s  directions,  and  use  the  screen 
recommended  for  each  particular  brand  of  orthochro- 
matic plates.  A screen  may  require  from  twice  to 
twelve  times  the  usual  exposures,  or  even  more ; but 
in  dully  lighted  landscape  work  the  greens  will  be 
more  effective  when  the  screen  is  used,  and  it  is  valu- 
able in  taking  pictures  showing  white  clouds  or  distant 
mountains  against  a blue  sky.  Of  course  where  it  is 


A GLANCE  AT  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPHY  259 


desirable  to  take  pictures  in  which  there  is  much  red 
and  yellow  (as  with  flowers  or  fruit,  or  brilliant  cos- 
tumes) the  screen  will  help  to  give  right  values,  and 
where  the  blue  light  is  too  strong  — as  at  the  sea- 
shore — orthochromatic  plates  with  screens  will  give 
many  delicate  effects. 

In  the  dark  room,  remember  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
plates,  and  also  be  more  careful  to  use  the  developers 
as  recommended  by  the  maker,  who  knows  what 
these  special  plates  require.  The  worker  with  ortho- 
chromatic plates  must,  in  short,  remember  that  he  is 
to  proceed  under  entirely  new  conditions,  and  should 
prepare  himself  beforehand  by  careful  study.  Modern 
science  has  provided  the  photographer  with  means  of 
making  plates  sensitive  to  many  different  colours,  and 
even,  it  may  be  said  to  all  colours  with  some  ap- 
proach to  correctness,  and  to  use  these  means  careful 
study  of  the  manuals  on  the  subject  is  requisite.  It 
must  be  said  also  that  sometimes  a yellowish  or  red- 
dish object  will  seem  to  affect  a plate  when  the  light 
is  reflected  from  it,  even  though  the  ordinary  sort  of 
plate  is  used.  The  question  of  orthochromatic  pho- 
tography is  most  important,  however,  not  to  the  usual 
amateur,  but  to  the  professional  makers  of  colour- 
plates.  Their  work  opens  a new  subject  and  may  be 
included  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


COLOUR  WORK  AND  OTHER  APPLICATIONS  OF 
PHOTOGRAPHY 

Coloured  prints  from  photographs  — The  three-colour  process — True 
coloured  negative  — The  Lippmanu  process  — The  Joly  or  Mc- 
Donough process  — The  recent  Lumiere  process  — A single-nega- 
tive method — What  it  accomplishes  — Photography  by  ultra- 
violet rays  — A glance  over  the  field  of  modern  photographic 
work  — The  amateur’s  recreations  — Serious  branches  of  photo- 
graphic work. 

Closely  connected  with  the  question  of  making 
plates  equally  sensitive  to  the  rays  of  different  colours 
is  the  producing  of  prints  in  varied  colours.  But  pho- 
tography has  to  do  with  the  making  of  the  plates  from 
which  the  prints  are  printed  rather  than  with  the 
coloured  pictures  themselves.  For  the  ordinary 
coloured  prints  produced  by  photography  owe  their 
colour  entirely  to  being  printed  in  coloured  inks  on 
the  printing  press.  Photography  in  this,  the  ordinary 
“ three-colour  process,”  largely  due  to  Ives,  of  Phila- 
delphia, is  used  only  to  make  three  plates  each  of 
which  is  separately  printed  in  a single  coloured  ink  — 
usually  a red,  a blue,  and  a yellow.  The  three  plates 
are  so  taken  that  each  takes  account  of  one  colour  in 
the  scene  photographed.  Three  photographic  nega- 
tives are  made  by  using  coloured  screens.  Each  screen 
shuts  off  all  but  one  kind  of  light  rays.  Thus  one  ad- 
mits only  red,  shutting  off  blue  and  yellow  ; another 
only  yellow ; a third  only  blue.  The  negatives  are 

260 


COLOUR  WORK 


261 


the  usual  sort,  but  each  records  only  one  kind  of  light. 
Then  by  a process  based  on  the  same  general  principles 
as  were  used  by  Niepce,  these  negatives  are  made  to 
yield  printing-plates.  Then  by  three  printings  in 
three  colours  one  upon  the  other  is  produced  a coloured 
print  that  may  bear  a resemblance  more  or  less  close 
to  the  natural  colouring.  Success  in  this  depends  on 
choosing  the  right  colours  for  the  three  inks,  printing 
them  in  the  right  strength,  and  printing  accurately. 
Exact  reproducing  of  natural  colours  is  of  course  im- 
possible. Pigments  are  not  lights.  No  blue  tint  can 
represent  the  colour  of  a bright  blue  sky,  no  white 
paper  the  brilliance  of  a white  cloud,  no  black  ink  the 
blackness  of  darkness. 

The  younger  reader  here  may  ask  how  it  is  possi- 
ble that  with  three  colours  we  can  reproduce  all  of  the 
innumerable  other  colours  seen  in  nature.  This  is  be- 
cause the  three  colours  we  choose  are  what  scientists 
call  the  primary  ones.  They  are  approximately 
red,  green,  and  violet  blue.  What  we  know  by  the 
words  brown,  purple,  pink,  orange,  and  many  other 
names,  are  in  reality  only  a combination  of  the  three 
primary  colours  in  various  proportions.  So  that  what 
we  call  brown  or  pink  in  nature,  may  be  photographed 
so  as  to  separate  it  into  its  three  component  primary 
colours ; and  when  we  print,  we  use  inks  that  repre- 
sent the  primary  colours,  and  combine  them  again 
into  the  colours  of  the  scene.  Generali}’,  printers  use 
for  their  work  red,  light  yellow  and  sky  blue  inks, 
and  with  these  they  get  wonderful  results ; but  they 
are  not,  strictly  speaking,  the  true  primary  colours. 

Three  transparencies  can  be  made  by  the  same 
method  of  photography,  and  lights  of  three  colours  may 


2G2  PnOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


be  sent  through  them  to  unite  on  a screen,  making  an 
image  representing  all  three  colourings;  or  by  carbon 
printing  and  other  methods  the  three  plates  may  also 
be  united.  Yet  none  of  these  plans  will  give  more 
than  a suggestion  of  natural  colouring. 

Sometimes  cameras  are  so  made  as  to  take  the  three 
negatives  at  once,  each  through  the  right  sort  of  colour 
filter,  the  right  exposure  for  each  plate  being  regulated 
by  diaphragms  of  different  sizes.  With  three  such 
negatives  on  films,  the  three  films  might  be  coloured 
and  put  together  to  make  one  lantern  slide.  But  how- 
ever it  be  used,  the  three-colour  process  is  not  “ pho- 
tography in  natural  colours,”  nor  is  it  an  approach 
toward  the  discovery  of  that  long-desired  art. 

There  are  certain  ways  of  taking  photographs  in 
colours,  but  they  are  all,  at  least  excepting  the  very 
latest,  exceedingly  difficult  and  uncertain.  The  one 
that  belongs  especially  to  the  laboratory  is  what  is 
named  after  its  inventor,  the“Lippmann  Process.”  But 
first  we  may  briefly  repeat  what  Abney  in  the  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica  records  about  early  experiments 
toward  true  photography  in  colours.  In  1810  a Dr. 
See  beck  of  Jena  received  the  image  of  the  spectrum 
on  moist  chloride  of  silver  and  succeeded  in  getting 
traces  of  the  natural  colours ; in  1839  Herschel  saw 
similar  results  on  the  chloride,  and  both  Daguerre  and 
Fox-Talbot  found  red  was  sometimes  reproduced  on 
their  plates;  in  18-10  and  1843  Robert  Hunt  produced 
the  spectrum  colours  to  some  extent  on  paper  dipped 
in  nitrate  of  silver  and  then  in  sodium  fluoride,  and 
the  print  lasted  over  two  months ; Hunt  also  made 
other  experiments  with  similar  success.  Then  in  1848 
Becquerel,  the  French  chemist,  prepared  a silver  plate 


COLOUR  WORK 


263 


with  a very  pure  silver  chloride  by  means  of  a voltaic 
battery,  and  then  gently  heated  it.  Upon  such  a plate, 
the  spectrum  was  photographed  in  colours,  and  “col- 
oured images  of  brightly  dressed  dolls  were  also  ob- 
tained.” 

The.se  images,  however,  like  the  first  nitrate  of  silver 
prints,  could  not  be  “ fixed,”  and  had  to  be  kept  from 
the  light. 

Niepce  de  St.  Victor  in  1857  repeated  and  improved 
on  Becquerel’s  method,  but  could  not  make  the  pictures 
permanent.  In  1868,  Poitevin  made  prints  in  colours 
on  paper  prepared  with  silver  chloride,  and  after  wash- 
ing exposed  to  sunlight  for  a moment,  and  then  treated 
with  bichromate  of  potash  and  copper  sulphate  and 
dried.  Under  a coloured  transparency,  this  gave  a 
coloured  print.  Poitevin  said  it  could  be  fixed  by  the 
use  of  sulphuric  acid.  Other  investigators  secured 
similar  results,  but  the  authority  from  whom  we  quote 
states  that  the  resulting  tints  on  the  paper  prints  were 
merely  records  of  the  different  sensitiveness  of  the 
compounds  used,  not  the  effect  of  differently  coloured 
rays  of  light  — as  in  the  case  of  the  Becquerel  daguerre- 
otypes, which  is  a “ true  colouration  by  the  spectrum.” 

The  Lippmann  process  is  based  upon  the  wave-theory 
of  light,  and  depends  upon  the  principle  that  the  light 
waves  may  be  reflected  after  passing  through  the  sen- 
sitive film.  When  so  reflected  by  means  of  a mirror 
(sometimes  a receptacle  filled  with  quicksilver),  the  re- 
turning waves  interfere  with  the  coming  waves.  The 
result  of  this  action  is  to  make  stationary  instead  of 
travelling  waves  (as  Professor  Lippmann  declares). 
These  waves,  he  tells  us,  act  in  the  substance  of  the 
film,  instead  of  merely  going  through  it,  and  “ impress 


264  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


their  structure  on  the  film,”  or  throw  it  into  such  a 
condition  that  when  the  silver  particles  are  formed 
under  the  action  of  the  developer  they  lie  in  a set  of 
planes  that  in  some  way  correspond  to  the  waves  made 
by  different  coloured  rays — that  is  waves  of  different 
length. 

"Whether  or  not  this  is  an  explanation  (and  we  con- 
fess that  it  conveys  no  very  clear  idea  to  ourselves), 
the  result  is  to  produce  a plate  that,  after  it  is  devel- 
oped and  viewed  by  reflected  light,  reproduces  the  col- 
ours to  the  eye. 

Gabriel  Lippmann,  the  inventor  of  this  process,  is  a 
French  professor  born  in  1845,  and  distinguished  for 
his  work  in  science.  The  method  of  photographing  in 
colours  was  announced  in  1891,  but  has  not  been 
greatly  used,  although  special  apparatus  for  viewing 
the  plates  has  been  devised,  and  they  may  also  be 
projected  on  a screen  by  a rightly  arranged  lantern. 
It  is  not  a process  at  present  that  is  likely  to  come  into 
popular  use,  though  an  interesting  one  as  proving  the 
theories  about  light  rays  and  their  wave-action. 

In  1894  Professor  Joly  of  Trinit}'  College,  Dublin, 
invented  a method  by  which  one  negative  is  taken 
through  a screen  ruled  with  very  fine  close  lines  of 
orange,  yellowish-green  and  blue.  Then  a positive  is 
made  from  the  negative,  and  viewed,  when  lighted, 
through  a similar  screen,  whereupon  the  colours  of  the 
original  scene  are  reproduced  to  the  eye,  though  the 
negative  is  the  usual  colour  of  ordinary  negatives.  The 
theory  of  this  process  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  usual 
three-colour  process  except  that  in  the  Joly  plate  the 
colours  are  produced  by  putting  the  three  colours  close 
together  instead  of  one  over  the  other.  Indeed  the 


COLOUR  WORK 


265 


coloured  lines  are  put  so  close  as  to  give  the  eye  the 
effect  of  their  overlapping.  The  negative  is  taken 
through  these  lines,  each  line  shutting  off  all  but  its 
own  colour.  Thus,  where  a red  surface  comes,  the 
negative  is  imprinted  strongly  or  thickly  under  the 
red  lines,  not  under  the  others.  Then  a positive  being 
made,  becomes  thin  just  where  the  negative  was  thick, 
and  so  this  red-surface  portion  is  thin  just  opposite  the 
red  lines.  Now  if  the  positive  be  viewed  by  means  of 
a similar  screen  over  it,  these  thin  portions  over  the 
red  lines  show  red,  while  the  other  colours  are  blocked 
out  where  the  positive  is  thick.  So  we  see  a red  light- 
ing where  the  red  surface  made  the  positive  thin.  It 
makes  no  difference  whether  the  positive  be  viewed  by 
light  on  it  or  through  it,  as  in  one  case  we  look  through 
the  screen  and  see  its  red,  and  in  the  other  case  we 
have  light  coming  through  the  red  to  us.  The  blue 
and  yellow  lines  act  in  the  same  fashion. 

There  is  in  the  human  eye  something  like  this  ar- 
rangement. It  is  believed  that  the  retina  upon  which 
we  receive  the  images  that  come  through  the  eye-lens 
contains  a number  of  the  ends  of  nerves.  These 
nerves  are  sensitive  to  colour  waves,  each  nerve  to  one 
of  the  three  main  colour-sensations,  red,  blue,  yellow 
(though,  strictly  speaking,  the  sensations  should  be 
considered  green,  red,  violet).  Thus  when  we  look  at 
a red  rose,  the  red-sensitive  nerves  are  affected  where 
the  image  of  the  rose  rests,  the  other  nerves  in  that 
space  being  less  excited  to  action. 

This  Joly  process  was  improved  by  McDonough,  an 
American.  Credit  for  the  idea  underlying  the  three- 
colour,  the  Lippmann,  and  Jol}'’  processes,  is  largely 
due  to  a French  worker,  Louis  Ducos  du  Hauron,  who 


266  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


in  1869  outlined  the  principles  governing  them.  At  a 
much  later  date  this  inventor  devised  a camera  that 
took  upon  three  plates  the  negatives  necessary  for  the 
three-colour  process,  and  also  contrived  that  the  posi- 
tives could  be  viewed  through  the  same  camera  so  as 
to  give  the  effect  of  a single  picture  in  colour. 

There  is  still  another  process  to  be  described,  which 
is  the  most  recent  of  all  and  seems  to  be  more  likely 
to  come  into  general  use  among  skilled  amateurs. 
This  is  the  “ Lumiere  Process.”  In  a photographic 
journal  for  August,  1907,  it  is  stated  that  the  “new 
Lumiere  autochrome  plate  is  on  the  market  in  Europe, 
and  will  be  soon  sold  in  America.”  By  this  method  a 
single  plate  is  exposed  as  usual  and  can  then  be  de- 
veloped into  a positive  in  natural  colouring,  and  a 
permanent  picture,  a transparenc}’,  thus  made  of  any 
scene.  This  new  process  depends  upon  the  structure 
of  the  new  plate.  The  plate  is  prepared  first  by 
spreading  upon  a sticky  surface  starch  granules  of 
exactly  uniform  size  and  dyed  in  the  three  primary 
colours,  orange,  green,  and  violet.  These  are  so  small 
that  20,000  will  cover  an  inch  of  surface,  and  are  put 
in  a single  layer,  none  overlapping.  A black  substance 
was  at  first  used  to  fill  up  all  spaces,  so  every  ra}'  of 
light  must  come  through  the  stained  granules,  but  this 
is  no  longer  required.  Then  the  film  is  so  flattened 
by  great  pressure  that  the  grains  have  flat  faces,  top 
and  bottom,  and  will  not  act  ,as  lenses.  This,  when 
varnished,  is  the  foundation  for  the  photographic 
emulsion,  and  the  plate  so  prepared  looks  nearly 
white,  like  a fine  ground-glass. 

Next  an  emulsion  is  put  on  this  foundation  — one 
that  is  “ panchromatic,”  or  sensitive  to  all  three  colour- 


COLOUR  WORK 


267 


rays  when  used  with  a special  yellow  screen  that  goes 
with  these  plates.  This  emulsion  is  very  thin  and  of 
bromide-collodion.  Exposure  is  made  glass-side  fore- 
most— so  that  the  light  comes  through  the  starch- 
granule  foundation  before  reaching  the  emulsion. 
The  necessary  exposures  vary  from'  one-sixth  second 
in  bright  sunshine  with  a quick  lens  (at  f/6)  to 
twenty  or  more  seconds  and  upward.  After  ex- 
posure there  is  a peculiar  development.  In  the  Joly 
process,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  object  is  attained 
by  making  a positive  so  that  the  light  can  come 
through  in  the  places  where  the  negative  was  dark. 
In  the  Lumiere  process,  the  negative  itself  is  changed 
to  a positive.  First  the  darkened  portions  are  developed 
as  usual.  The  developing  is  in  darkness.  Next  the 
plate  is  “ reduced  ” (by  potassium  permanganate  and 
sulphuric  acid),  which  removes  the  silver  that  has  been 
darkened.  The  plate  is  now  developed  once  more 
(with  amidol),  which  darkens  the  emulsion  that  before 
was  not  dark.  The  plate  is  then  intensified,  cleared, 
and  after  being  rinsed,  fixed,  and  dried. 

The  accounts  of  the  process  given  by  experts  in 
Europe  say  that  the  pictures  produced  are  of  marvellous 
beauty  and  brilliance,  and  very  true  to  nature.  The 
Lumiere  brothers,  the  inventors,  are  said  to  be  per- 
fecting means  for  making  prints  from  the  negatives, 
but  that  is  not  yet  done.  The  plates  can  be  kept  some 
time  before  exposure,  and  the  resulting  pictures  are 
said  to  be  permanent.  A German  authority  says  that 
the  process  in  its  results  far  surpasses  all  others,  and 
is  confirmed  by  English  and  American  workers  who 
have  tried  the  plates.  The  plates  are  naturally  very 
expensive,  $2.50  for  four  plates  5X7  in  size  — or  ten 


268  PHOTOCJKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


dollars  a dozen,  but  no  doubt  will  be  made  more 
cheaply. 

It  must  be  said  that  these  are  not  all  the  means  of 
making  coloured  pictures  by  photography,  but  the 
principles  can  be  understood  from  these,  the  most  im- 
portant, and  the  leading  processes.  The  reader  will 
be  ready  to  admit  at  least  that  the  progress  in  colour- 
photography  since  1873  has  been  very  great,  and  that 
the  outlook  for  the  future  seems  hopeful,  even  though 
the  art  of  taking  actual  photographs  in  colours  — the 
fixing  of  the  actual  colour  image  — has  not  yet  been 
achieved. 

Another  recent  photographic  triumph  is  the  taking 
of  photographs  by  means  of  the  invisible  rays,  and 
thus  securing  photographs  of  objects  so  minute  that 
the  ordinary  visible  rays  will  not  show  them.  Visible 
ravs  are  of  longer  wave-length  than  the  ultra-violet 
or  invisible  rays,  and  so  when  used  in  microscopic 
work  interfere  with  one  another.  By  using  the  ultra- 
violet rays,  the  waves  are  shorter,  do  not  interfere 
with  one  another,  and  so  bring  out  things  the  eye 
cannot  separate.  These  short  waves  do  not  affect  the 
eye,  but  they  do  affect  the  photographic  film.  They 
will  not  pass  through  ordinary  glass  lenses,  and  so 
quartz  lenses  are  used  ; they  are  not  visible,  and  so 
focusing  has  to  be  done  by  using  a fluorescent  screen 
of  uranium  glass  which  makes  them  visible ; the  ob- 
jects examined  must  be  mounted  on  quartz  and  cov- 
ered by  the  same  mineral.  But  when  all  this  is  done, 
the  ultra-violet  microscope  will  show  things  of  only 
half  the  size  of  those  before  considered  the  smallest 
visible,  and  will  also  tell  us  much  of  structures  trans- 
parent to  ordinary  light,  but  showing  differences  of 


COLOUR  WORK 


269 


constitution  in  the  ultra-violet  photographs.  To  the 
microscope  also  has  been  applied  the  Lumiere  colour 
process,  so  as  to  take  natural  colour  pictures  of  the 
most  minute  objects. 

Modern  photography  covers  so  many  branches  and 
is  applied  so  widely  that  we  cannot  expect  to  do  more 
than  give  the  reader  the  merest  hints  of  the  many 
subjects  in  which  the  camera  has  given  mankind  new 
eyes.  By  its  use  the  invisible  is  seen,  as  in  astronomy, 
where  the  plate  records  more  than  the  eye  receives ; 
in  microscopic  work,  as  has  been  set  forth  ; in  instanta- 
neous pictures  of  objects  in  rapid  motion ; in  the  use 
of  other  rays  than  those  the  e^^e  knows ; in  submarine 
and  surgical  photography,  where  the  camera  may  be 
made  to  act  apart  from  the  operator ; in  natural  his- 
tory work,  by  automatic  shutters;  in  scientific  record 
instruments  actuated  by  clockwork  — and  soon  end- 
lessly. Not  only  is  the  record  different  from  that  of 
our  vision,  but  it  is  permanent  and  accurate.  Not 
only  is  it  complete,  but  it  may  be  made  large  or  small 
at  will. 

The  camera  aids  every  art,  science,  trade  and  pro- 
fession, and  its  field  extends  daily.  The  amusements 
of  the  amateur  at  one  time,  give  rise  at  a later  period 
to  most  useful  improvements  available  in  practical 
life. 

There  is  a little  book  called  “ Photographic  Amuse- 
ments,” written  by  Walter  E.  Woodbury,  author  of 
an  “ Encyclopedic  Dictionary  of  Photography.”  This 
is  a collection  of  “novel  effects  obtainable  with  the 
camera,”  and  serves  to  show  how  ingeniously  the 
powers  of  photography  may  be  applied.  There  are 
suggestions  in  the  volume  for  using  in  connection  with 


270  THOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  camera  a number  of  adjuncts.  Thus  from  the  mir- 
ror we  may  get  multiple  images  ; by  using  odd-shaped 
reflecting  surfaces,  distorted  views  are  secured  ; by 
interposing  screens  we  may  produce  caricatures,  show- 
ing a big  head  on  a small  body,  or  a portrait  on  a bust- 
pedestal  ; by  under-exposure  of  one  image,  followed 
by  full  exposure  of  another,  are  produced  “ spirit  ” 
pictures ; by  photographing  wall-paper  laid  on  a floor 
from  a suspended  camera,  it  may  be  made  to  repre- 
sent a wall,  and  all  sorts  of  accidents  made  to  take 
])lace,  since  a figure  h'ing  down  seems  in  the  plate 
falling  through  space.  Other  possibilities  are  silhou- 
ettes, taken  against  stretched  tissue-paper,  with  short 
exposures  and  long  development ; distorted  photo- 
graphs on  plates  set  at  various  angles  in  the  camera, 
or  taken  through  vertical  or  horizontal  slits ; “ moon- 
light” photographs  taken  in  full  sunlight  (with  the 
sun  in  the  picture)  by  means  of  a very  small  stop  and 
too  quick  exposure  with  under-development ; the  tak- 
ing of  snow  crystals  or  frost-markings  in  winter,  and 
so  on  through  every  sort  of  ingenious  modifying  of 
the  usual  conditions. 

The  means  of  making  these  odd  pictures  will  be 
very  quickly  picked  up  by  any  amateur  who  will  be- 
come familiar  with  the  right  methods  of  picture-mak- 
ing. To  avoid  errors,  j’ou  must  know  what  causes 
them  ; and,  knowing  how  they  are  caused,  it  is  not  a 
difficult  matter  to  make  errors  on  purpose.  For  ex- 
ample, many  so-called  “freak  pictures”  are  shown. 
In  them  we  may  see  a man  playing  checkers  with  him- 
self, or  a woman  holding  a book  on  which  a tiny  im- 
age of  herself  is  standing.  Such  effects  are  produced 
either  by  exposing  part  of  a plate  at  a time,  or  by 


Copyright,  igo6,  by  A.  B.  Phelan 

A Specimen  of  Photographic  Ingenuity 


Courtesy  0/ Photo-Era  Magazine 

A Dupi.icate  Portrait 

(A  desciiption  of  this  process  is  given  in  the  A]ipenclix) 


COLOUR  WORK 


271 


having  a black  space  come  in  the  part  of  the  view 
where  you  want  to  introduce  a second  figure.  The 
second  exposure  uses  either  a second  part  of  the  plate, 
or  puts  a lighter  figure  against  the  black  background, 
to  affect  the  unaffected  portion  of  the  plate. 

Pinhole  photography,  night  photography  and  com- 
posite photography,  are  matters  of  another  sort,  each 
a branch  well  worthy  of  the  most  careful  and  serious 
study.  But  each  would  require  a sepai*ate  treatise, 
and  the  reader  who  is  interested  will  find  many  de- 
lightful handbooks  available  to  him.  When  you  begin 
to  study  special  subjects  like  these,  you  will  need  to 
seek  out  the  works  devoted  especially  to  them. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


SOME  HINTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE 

Chemistry  and  its  language  — Meanings  of  the  symbols  and  formulae 
— Acids  and  bases  — Salts  — Other  compounds  — Important  ele- 
ments— Light  and  the  silver  salts  — Chemistry  of  developing  — 
Chemistry  of  fixing — Intensifying  and  reducing  — Warning  to 
the  amateur  — Some  text-books  on  chemistry  — Photography  an 
art  of  expression. 

The  language  in  which  chemical  facts  are  recorded 
is  simpler  than  it  looks.  The  elements  (those  sub- 
stances which  cannot  be  simplified  or  changed)  are 
expressed  by  their  initials,  either  one  or  more ; and 
these  initials  are  to  be  learned  or  known  by  looking 
at  the  Table  of  Elements  (see  last  chapter).  Opposite 
each  will  be  found  its  “ atomic  weight  ” — that  is,  the 
weight  in  which  it  combines  with  other  elements.  It 
always  combines  at  this  weight  or  a multiple  of  it. 
Where  the  letter  alone  is  written  it  means  just  so 
many  parts  of  that  element  as  is  expressed  by  the 
atomic  weight.  Thus  the  atomic  weight  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  the  substance 
that  will  enter  into  a chemical  compound.  The  num- 
bers represent  the  weight  of  each  substance  as  com- 
pared with  hj'drogen  — the  lightest  of  all.  Thus  iron 
is  56  times  as  heavy ; gold,  196  times ; platinum,  197.4 
times,  oxygen,  16  times.  Water  is  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  two  parts  of  II,  one  of  O,  or  “HjO  ” — the 
one  chemical  symbol  we  all  remember.  But  any 
quantity  of  water  must  then  consist  of  2 weights  of 

272 


SOME  HINTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE  273 


hydrogen  to  16  of  oxygen,  2 volumes  of  hydrogen  to 
1 of  oxygen.  Thus,  in  2,000  pounds  of  water  there 
would  be  (in  round  numbers,  and  leaving  fractions  for 
school  hours)  222  pounds  of  hydrogen  and  1,776  pounds 
of  oxygen.  And  this  will  show  how  we  can  always 
calculate  how  much  of  any  chemical  by  weight  is  in 
any  compound,  since  we  know  from  the  formula  how 
much  weight  (in  atomic  weight)  goes  to  one  part  of 
the  compound. 

Silver  nitrate  (as  used  by  Wedgwood  and  the  rest 
of  us  photographers)  is,  for  example:  AgNOj.  If 
we  put  down  the  atomic  weight  we  shall  have : 

Silver  (argeutum,  Ag.)  = 107.93 
Nitrogen  (N)  = 14.045 

Oxygen  (O)  three  parts  = 48. 

109.975 

Say  170  for  ease  of  calculating.  Then,  in  170 
pounds,  ounces,  grams,  or  tons,  of  nitrate  of  silver  there 
would  be  (nearly)  108  parts  of  silver,  14  of  nitrogen 
and  48  of  oxygen.  And,  in  the  same  way,  you  can 
take  any  chemical  compound  and  by  translating  the 
symbols  and  attaching  the  atomic  weights,  you  will 
have  the  receipt  for  the  compound.  Chloride  of  sil- 
ver is  AgCl  — or  108  parts  silver  and  35  of  chlorine; 
and  no  matter  how  much  or  how  little  of  these  com- 
pounds you  have,  they  are  made  up  of  these  relative 
quantities  and  relative  weights. 

The  elements  when  combined  from  various  com- 
pounds, and  according  to  their  behaviour  the  elements 
are  considered  as  “ acid-formers  ” or  “ base-formers,” 
though  some  form  both  acids  and  bases.  An  acid  and 
a base  are  so  named  because  they  differ  greatly  in 

• I 


274  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


their  action  ; acids  contain  hydrogen,  bases  contain  a 
metal ; and  when  an  acid  acts  on  a base,  the  hydrogen 
and  the  metal  exchange  places.  The  acid  then  usually 
becomes  neutral  — or  neither  acid  nor  alkaline,  and 
the  hydrogen  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  base 
and  there  is  water  formed. 

The  acids  therefore  contain  hydrogen  exchangeable 
with  a metal  or  the  metal  from  a base.  The  bases 
contain  metal  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
and  treated  with  acid  exchange  the  metal  for  hydro- 
gen. The  acid  acting  on  a base  gives  a neutral  sub- 
stance called  a salt,  and  also  causes  water  to  be 
formed  by  the  uniting  of  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
The  chemist  considers  all  elements  that  will  replace 
hydrogen  in  an  acid  to  be  metals. 

As  to  names,  acids  end  usually  in  ic,  as  nitric  acid, 
sulphuric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  tartaric  acid.  But  if 
there  are  two  acids  formed  from  an  element,  the  one 
with  less  oxygen  ends  in  ous.  Thus  there  is  nitrous 
acid,  and  nitric  acid  — with  these  formulae  IINOj  and 
IINO3 — the  nitric  having  in  each  molecule  (or 
smallest  possible  portion)  one  more  atom  of  ox}'gen. 
In  the  same  way  sulphuric  acid  is  H2SO4 ; while  sul- 
phurous acid  is  II2SO3.  If  in  an  acid  there  is  still  less 
oxygen,  the  prefix,  hypo  (Greek  “ under  ”),  indicates 
this,  as  in  hypochlorous  acid  ; if  there  is  an  acid  con- 
taining more  oxygen  than  in  the  best  known  acid  the 
one  known  to  have  most  oxygen  has  the  prefix  “per” 
(Latin  for  through  or  “ very  ”)  as  in  perchloric  acid. 
Thus  (taking  our  illustration  from  Remsen’s  “ Intro- 
duction to  Chemistry  ”)  from  chlorine  we  have 
“chloric,  chlorous,  hypochlorous,  and  perchloric  acid  ” 
— but  in  each  case  the  acid  is  merely  a compound  of 


SOME  HIOTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE  276 


chlorine  with  various  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 

— in  other  words  with  the  elements  of  water. 

With  these  explanations  you  will  be  able  to  see  the 
reason  for  the  names  of  acids. 

The  bases  (among  which  are  the  substances  called 
alkalis)  combine  with  acids  and  neutralize  them,  form- 
ing what  are  called  salts.  Thus  bases  and  acids  com- 
bine and  change  into  substances  unlike  either,  and  we 
have  already  said  that  this  comes  about  when  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  acid  changes  places  with  the  metal  of  a 
base.  Thus  if  nitric  acid  acts  on  silver  and  dissolves 
it,  the  nitric  acid  exchanges  its  hydrogen  for  silver,  and 
the  HNOs+Ag  produces  AgNOj  or  silver  nitrate. 

The  salts  have  this  ending,  ate  when  formed  by  the 
acids  ending  in  ic.  When  formed  by  acids  ending  in 
they  have  the  ending  ite  — as  in  sodium  sulphite 

— formed  from  sodium  by  sulphurous  acid.  Thus  our 
old  friend  “ hypo  ” is  “ hyposulphite;  of  sodium,”  as  it 
is  formed  by  the  action  of  hyposulphurous  acid  on 
sodium. 

The  bases,  being  compounds  of  metals  with  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  are  known  as  hydroxides  — potas- 
sium hydroxide  (caustic  potash),  and  caustic  soda  is 
sodium  hydroxide.  Each  metal  can  (theoretically) 
yield  a base  when  treated  by  an  acid,  and  thus  we 
have  nitrates,  chlorates,  sulphates  (instead  of  sulphur- 
ate) according  to  the  acid  used.  Prefixing  the  name 
of  the  metal,  we  have  the  compound  — as  silver 
nitrate,  copper  sulphate,  and  so  on. 

The  elements  with  which  most  of  us  have  to  deal 
are  not  more  than  two  dozen,  and  it  will  not  take  very 
long  for  the  amateur  photographer  to  know  something 
about  their  properties,  and  about  the  compounds  used 


276  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


in  photography.  The  ending  “ ide  ” means  simply 
“ compound  of  ” ; thus  compounds  of  bromine  are 
known  as  bromides,  of  sulphur  as  “ sulphides,”  of 
oxygen  as  “ oxides.” 

With  so  much  of  chemical  talk  to  make  the  “ hard 
words  ” more  familiar,  we  express  the  hope  that  the 
young  photographer  will  soon  be  driven  to  regular 
works  on  chemistry  — as  he  will  sooner  or  later  be 
glad  to  know  fully  the  chemical  facts  that  explain  the 
reasons  for  his  work.  The  more  important  elements 
to  the  photographer  are  yold^  silver,  platinum,  iron, 
copper,  mercury,  zinc,  lead ; sulphur,  phosphorus, 
chlorine,  hrornine,  iodine;  boron,  calcium,  carhon, 
hydrogen,  magnesium,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  potassium, 
sodium.  Of  these,  four  will  form  salts  directly  with 
a metal,  and  so  are  called  “ halogens  ” (from  the  Greek 
hals  and  gen)  or  “ salt-makers.”  Cyanogen  (a  group  of 
a carbon  and  a nitrogen  atom  — with  the  symbol  CN, 
though  not  a compound,  is  found  in  various  com- 
pounds, and  these  are  called  “ cyanogens  ”)  is  also  a 
halogen.  These  halogens  are  important  inphotography. 

Now  when  a silver  salt  (as  a bromide  or  chloride  of 
silver)  is  acted  on  by  light,  it  is  believed  that  the  mole- 
cule of  the  salt  is  separated  into  its  atoms.  The  light 
waves  agitate  the  atoms.  Originally  composed  of  two 
atoms  of  silver  and  two  of  the  halogen  (silver  bromide 
is  Ag2Br2  and  silver  chloride  is  AgjClj),  the  light  de- 
composes the  compound  into  a sub-bromide  by  liberat- 
ing a bromine  atom  if  the  compound  be  silver  bro- 
mide, or  makes  a sub-chloride  from  silver-chloride  by 
liberating  a chlorine  atom.  It  is  just  as  if  the  com- 
pound were  four  bathers  holding  each  other’s  hands  — 
the  two  brothers  Bromide  and  the  two  brothers  Silver, 


SOME  HINTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE  277 


and  a big  wave  pulls  them  a little  way  apart,  so  that  they 
either  lose  their  hand-clasp  or  loosen  it.  Now,  being 
already  somewhat  separated,  the  group  is  composed  of 
the  two  brothers  Silver,  and  one  brother  Bromide — 
the  other  Bromide  brother  being  by  himself,  thus  : 
But  besides  the  separation  of  B,  the 
waves  have  greatly  weakened  the 
union  of  the  group,  and  either  of 
the  S brothers  may  easily  be  de- 
tached (for  being  held  by  chemical 
attraction,  the  one  atom  B cannot 
strongly  hold  more  than  one  atom  S). 

Consequently  when  we  put  the  developer  at  work, 
we  have  a compound  ready  to  break  up,  and 
form  new  compounds.  Pyrogallic  acid  mixed  with 
an  alkali,  such  as  sodium  carbonate,  has  a strons: 
affinity  for  oxygen.  It  takes  oxygen  from  water 
(lIjO),  leaving  the  hydrogen  free  to  take  part  in  the 
breaking  up  of  the  halogen.  Thus  the  new  chemicals 
added  and  produced  in  the  water  attract  the  bromine 
atoms.  First  they  take  away  the  free  atom,  and  then 
the  other,  from  each  group.  This  leaves  the  silver 
atoms  by  themselves  — or  reduced  (or  simplified)  to 
metallic  silver.  Thus  the  developer  continues  the  sep- 
aration begun  by  the  light  waves,  and  produces  in  the 
film  metallic  silver. 

Pyrogallic  acid  has  the  formula  : C6H3(OH)j,  and 
is  chemically  called  a “ tri-hydoxy  1-benzene  ” — hy- 
droxyl meaning  the  group  OH,  and  the  benzene  being 
the  CgHg  (in  which  IIj+OIIj  replaces  Hg).  The  carbon 
compounds,  among  which  pyrogallic  acid  is  classed, 
are  too  complicated  for  any  but  technical  books. 
We  need  only  remember  that  they  can.  develop 


278  PHOTOGRAPHY*  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


plates  by  taking  the  halogens  away  and  leaving  the 
silver.  After  we  have  developed  the  plate,  we  must 
take  away  the  part  of  the  haloid  salt,  the  silver 
compound,  unchanged  by  light  and  developer.  This 
is  done  by  the  hypo  bath. 

Hyposulphite  of  sodium  is  Na2S203+5ll20.  The 
latter  part  of  this  formula,  5H2O,  means  simply  that 
the  crystals  contain  five  parts  of  water  held  in  them. 
Another  name  given  by  chemists  to  hypo  is  thiosul- 
phate of  sodium.  “ Thio  ” is  from  the  Greek  0eiov 
.(theion),  sulphur,  and  the  term  indicates  that  the  salt 
is  the  result  of  the  action  of  thiosulphuric  acid  on 
sodium;  and  thiosulphuric  indicates  an  acid  in  which 
some  of  the  oxygen  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  replaced 
by  sulphur  atoms.  Whatever  the  theory,  our  useful 
“ hypo  ” has  the  ability  to  dissolve  the  silver  salts  if 
they  have  not  been  broken  up  by  light  waves,  or  de- 
velopment. But  there  must  be  a strong  solution  of 
hypo,  or  there  will  be  formed  in  the  film  an  insoluble 
chemical  instead  of  a soluble  one.  This  insoluble 
double  salt  is  Ag2Na4(S20j)3,  and  it  will  remain  in  the 
film  in  spite  of  washing,  and  may  afterward  discolour 
it.  Souse  fresh,  strong  hypo.  Rightly  used  the  hypo 
forms  the  double  salt:  AgNaS203,  and  this  will  be 
washed  out  by  water,  leaving  the  film  free  from  any 
compound  that  will  injure  it.  But  before  this  double 
salt  is  washed  out  it  is  invisible,  being  transparent. 
Hence  we  leave  negatives  in  hypo  till  the  white  dis- 
appears, when  we  know  that  the  bromide  of  silver  has 
been  changed  to  these  double  salts,  and  then  as  long 
again,  so  that  they  may  be  dissolved  out  and  cleared 
away.  Be  careful  to  fix  thoroughly,  and  then  wash 
thoroughly,  if  you  want  permanent  negatives. 


SOME  HINTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE  279 


The  chemistry  of  intensifying  consists  in  either 
changing  the  colour  of  the  silver  deposit,  so  as  to 
make  it  more  resisting  to  the  rays  of  light ; in  making 
the  image  more  visible  to  the  eye  by  adding  to  the 
deposit  something  else,  or  substituting  something  else 
for  it.  Thus  using  mercuric  chloride  (HgClj),  it  forms 
with  the  silver  a double  chloride  of  mercury  and  sil- 
ver, and  then  this  is  stained  (by  ammonium  hydrate) 
a deep  brown  — which  resists  the  light  rays.  There 
are  also  methods  of  adding  more  silver  to  that  already 
deposited.  By  means  of  platinum  and  gold  combina- 
tions — gold  chloride  and  platinum  tetrachloride,  for 
example  — the  silver  is  made  to  combine  with  the 
chlorine,  is  then  removed,  and  leaves  the  gold  or  the 
platinum  in  its  place.  But  for  these  methods,  which 
are  complicated,  it  is  fair  to  refer  the  reader  to  the 
text- books. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  negative  two 
more  things  must  be  noted.  The  first  is  the  tendency 
of  a chemical  action  to  continue  when  once  started  — 
as  seen  in  the  burning  of  wood,  the  rusting  of  iron, 
the  crystallizing  of  a dissolved  substance  from  a solu- 
tion. Advantage  is  taken  of  this  in  increasing  develop- 
ing action  when  once  begun  — as  in  the  use  of  chem- 
ical developers  after  light  has  acted  either  on  plates 
or  printing  papers.  The  second  is  the  operation 
of  reducing  a negative.  Chemically  this  is  done  by 
the  use  of  agents  that  combine  with  the  silver  making 
new  compounds  thaf  are  soluble,  and  may  be  washed 
out.  Thus  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  changes  the  silver 
partly  to  a mixture  of  silver  and  ferrocyanide ; the 
latter  being  soluble  is  washed  out  leaving  the  silver 
in  a state  when  hypo  will  wash  it  out.  Other  iron 


280  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


compounds  are  used  for  reducing,  as  percbloride  of 
iron  with  citric  acid,  and  reducing  agents  also  used 
are  sulphate  of  copper,  and  potassium  permanganate. 

The  amateur  who  means  to  try  any  of  these  intensi- 
fying and  reducing  methods  should  be  sure  to  know 
something  of  the  powerful  chemicals  used.  For  it 
must  be  impressed  on  young  photographers  that  a 
great  many  of  the  agents  used  in  the  various  processes 
are  active  and  powerful  poisons.  Photography  is  no 
place  for  carelessness  or  bungling. 

The  making  of  prints  introduces  a whole  new  class 
of  chemical  facts  and  proceedings.  But  into  these 
there  is  no  room  to  enter.  Generally  speaking,  the 
desire  to  know  the  details  of  the  processes,  and  the 
reasons  why  the  chemicals  act  as  they  do,  should  send 
the  amateur  to  the  various  text-books  on  the  subject 
of  photographic  chemistry.  A very  excellent  one  is 
Abney’s  “ Treatise  on  Photography,”  and  another  is 
Harrison’s  “ Chemistry  of  Photography.”  On  special 
subjects,  the  reader  will  find  the  various  numbers  of 
” The  Photo-Miniature  ” most  helpful ; an  especially 
useful  one  being  “ Chemical  Notions  for  Photog- 
raphers ” which  tells  about  the  qualities  and  uses  of 
all  the  most  useful  compounds. 

You  will  not,  of  course,  expect  to  know  the  whole 
subject  even  generally  ; but  you  can  easily  follow  out 
the  main  facts  of  the  processes  you  choose  for  most  of 
your  work,  and  thereby  learn  what  is  right  and  wrong 
in  them,  and  wherein  to  make  changes.  In  this  chap- 
ter the  purpose  has  been  only  to  give  you  some  little 
introduction  to  the  subject  in  order  that  you  may  be 
invited  to  go  further  by  yourself. 

The  last  chapter  of  this  book  contains  certain  tables 


SOME  HINTS  ON  THE  CHEMICAL  SIDE  281 


and  rules  that  may  be  found  useful,  but  the  more 
serious  worker  is  strongly  advised  to  buy  each  year 
one  or  more  of  the  Photographic  Annuals,  which  con- 
tain excellent  helps  and  discussions  and  tables  upon 
every  subject  the  photographer  may  need. 

In  closing  the  author  desires  to  be  considered  only 
as  one  who  has  tried  to  direct  amateurs  to  better  knowl- 
edge than  he  ever  hopes  to  possess  of  the  great  science 
and  art  of  photography.  The  expert  often  knows  too 
much  to  be  the  best  helper  for  those  who  are  making 
their  way  among  the  elementary  principles,  whereas 
the  learner  who  has  not  long  ago  travelled  the  same 
path  remembers  the  stumbling  blocks  and  the  blind 
trails  that  perplex. 

Above  all  things  remember  that  photography  is  an 
art  of  expression,  and  like  other  arts  of  the  kind  de- 
pends for  its  final,  true  value  upon  what  the  artist  is 
trying  to  express.  Much  of  your  earlier  work  must  be 
accidental  in  its  results,  but  the  amateur  who  learns  to 
know  the  possibilities  of  lens,  camera,  and  print,  will 
have  little  ambition  if  he  does  not  desire  to  become 
rather  the  master  than  the  slave  of  these  wonder- 
working marvels  of  modern  science. 


THE  END 


Appendix 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

UNITED  STATES  STANDARDS 

From  the  “ American  Annual  of  Photography,"  1907 


12  inches  ~ 1 foot. 

3 feet  = 1 yard. 

5.5  yards  = 1 rod. 

40  rods  = 1 furlong. 
8 furlongs  = 1 mile. 


LINEAL 

Inches.  Feet. 

12  = 1 
36  = 3 = 

198  = 16.5 

7,»‘20  = 660  = 

63,360  = 5,280  = 


Yards.  Rods.  Fur’s.  Mile. 
1 

5.5  = 1 

220  = 40  = 1 

1,760  = 320  = 8 = 1 


VOLUME— LIQUID 

4 gills  = 1 pint.  Gills.  Pints.  Gallon.  Cub.  In. 

2 pints  = 1 quart.  32  = 8 = 1 = 231 

4 quarts  = 1 gallon. 

FLUID 

Gallon.  Quarts.  Pints.  Ounces.  Drachms.  Minims. 

1 = 4 = 8 = 128  = 1,024  = 61,440 

1 = 16  = 128  = '7,680 

1 = 8 = 480 

1 = 60 

16  ounces,  or  a pint,  is  sometimes  called  a fluid  pound. 


TROY  WEIGHT 

Pound.  Ounces. 

Pennyweights. 

Grains. 

Grams. 

1 = 12 

= 240  = 

5,760  = 

373.24 

1 

= 20  = 

480  = 

31.10 

1 = 

24  -= 

1.56 

Precious  metals  are  sold  by  Troy  weight. 

283 


284 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


APOTHECARIES’  WEIGHT 


lb 

1 

3 

B 

gr. 

Pound. 

Ounces. 

Drachms. 

Scruples. 

Grains.  Grams. 

1 = 

12  = 

96  = 

288  = 

5,760  = 373.24 

1 = 

8 = 

1 = 

24  = 

3 = 

1 = 

480  = 31.10 

60  = 3.89 

20  = 1.30 

1 = .06 

The  pound,  onnce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 

Pound,  Ounces.  Drachms.  Grains  (Troy).  Grams. 

1 = 16  = 256  = 7,000  = 453.60 

1 = 16  = 437.5  = 28.35 

1 = 27.34  = 1.77 

Chemicals  are  sold  by  avoirdupois  weight. 

1 onnce  avoirdupois  = 437J  grains  Troy  or  Apothecaries’. 


METRIC  SYSTEM 


MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 


Names. 

No.  of  Liters. 

Wine  Measure. 

Kiloliter  or  stere 

1,000 

264.17  gallons. 

Hectoliter 

100 

26.417  gallons. 

Deckaliter 

10 

2.6417  gallons. 

Liter 

1 

1.0567  quarts. 

Deciliter 

1-10 

.845  gill. 

Centiliter 

1-100 

.338  fluid  oz. 

Milliliter 

1-1000 

.27  fl.  drm. 

WEIGHTS 

Names. 

No.  of  grams. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. 

Millier  or  Tonneau 

1,000,000 

2204.6  pounds. 

Quintal 

100,000 

220.46  pounds. 

Myriagram 

10,000 

22.046  pounds. 

Kilogram  or  Kilo 

1,000 

2.2046  pounds. 

Hectogram 

100 

3.5274  ounces. 

Dekagram 

10 

.3527  ounce. 

Gram 

1 

15.432  grains. 

Decigram 

1-10 

1.5432  grain. 

Centigram 

1-100 

.1543  grain. 

Milligram 

1-1000 

.0154  grain. 

COINS  AS  STANT)ARDS 

By  the  use  of  coins  as  weights  in  a balance  (made 


APPENDIX 


285 


out  of  a stick  and  two  little  disks  of  cardboard)  chem- 
ical solutions  can  be  made  up  accurately  enough  for 
most  photographic  processes. 


WEIGHT  OF  COINS 
(in  Apothecaries'  System) 


Standard  dollar 
Half-dollar 

412J  grains 

192  “ and  a little  over. 

Quarter-dollar 

96  “ “ “ " “ 

Dime 

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

5-cent  (nickel) 

4 4 4 4 44  4 4 44 

1-cent  (copper) 

48  “ 

Five-cent  nickel, 

2 centimeters  diameter,  weighs  five  (5) 

grammes.  1 gramme  - “ 15^  grains. 


MEASUREMENTS 


Half-dollar, 

Quarter, 

Dime, 


11  inches  in  diameter ; inch  in  thickness 

19  I < i 4 4 4 4 $ 4 4 4 4 4 4 

55  T505 

a “ “ “ rih  “ “ 


For  liquids,  an  ordinary  drinking-glass  holds  about 
four  ounces  when  half-full,  and  about  a pint,  full. 


EXPOSURE 

TABLE  OF  COMPARATIVE  LIGHT  VALUES 
By  Rev.  Dwight  W.  Smith. 

“American  Annual  of  Photography  ” 1907. 

While  there  is  a wider  range  in  timing  the  ex- 
posure of  a dry  plate  than  is  generally  supposed,  yet 
it  is  well  known  that  there  is  but  one  correct  interval 
for  the  best  results  with  a normal  developer.  To  best 
approximate  that  interval  at  all  available  hours  of  the 
day  and  year  requires  some  attention  and  experience. 
It  will  be  seen  in  this  table,  that  in  Januar}%  the  light 
value  for  noon  is  given  as  1.7,  while  at  4 p.  m.  the  ex- 
posure would  necessarily  be  more  than  five  times  that 


2S6  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOE  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


duration.  For  July,  the  most  rapid  as  well  as  longest 
available  light  of  any  month,  the  light  at  noon  is  indi- 
cated by  .2  instead  of  1.7,  and  at  3 p.  m.  more  than 
twice  the  time  will  be  required. 

The  first  column  indicates  the  hour  of  the  day  ; the 
second  column  the  comparative  light  values  in  whole 
numbers  and  tenths. 


JANUARY. 

FEBRUARY. 

MARCH. 

APRIL. 

8 

10 

8 

6 

8 

3 

8 

2 

9 

4 

9 

4 

9 

2 

9 

1.5 

10 

2.5 

10 

2 

10 

1.5 

10 

1.7 

11 

2 

11 

1.7 

11 

1.2 

11 

1 

12 

1.7 

12 

1.5 

12 

1 

12 

1 

1 

1.7 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2.5 

2 

2.7 

2 

1.7 

2 

1.2 

3 

4.5 

3 

3.5 

3 

2 

3 

1.5 

4 

9 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

2 

5 

60 

5 

20 

5 

4 

6 

20 

MAY. 

JUNE. 

JULY. 

AUGUST. 

8 

1.7 

8 

1.7 

8 

1.5 

8 

1.7 

9 

1.2 

9 

1.2 

9 

1.2 

9 

1.5 

10 

1 

10 

1 

10 

1 

10 

1 

11 

.7 

11 

.6 

11 

.5 

11 

.7 

12 

.5 

12 

.3 

12 

.2 

12 

.5 

1 

.7 

1 

.5 

1 

.5 

1 

.5 

2 

1 

2 

.7 

2 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1.2 

3 

1.2 

3 

1.2 

3 

1.2 

4 

1.5 

4 

1.5 

4 

1.5 

4 

1.7 

5 

2.7 

5 

2.2 

5 

2.2 

5 

2.5 

6 

15 

6 

5 

6 

4 

6 

5 

7 

80 

7 

20 

7 

15 

7 

60 

SEPTEMBER. 

OCTOBER. 

NOVEMBER. 

DECEMBER. 

8 

2 

8 

3 

8 

4 

8 

9 

9 

1.5 

9 

1.7 

9 

3 

9 

3 

10 

1 

10 

1.5 

10 

2 

10 

2 

11 

1 

11 

1.2 

11 

1.7 

11 

1.5 

12 

.5 

12 

1 

12 

1.5 

12 

1.7 

1 

1 

1 

1.2 

1 

1.5 

1 

2 

2 

1.2 

2 

1.5 

2 

2 

2 

2.5 

3 

1.5 

3 

2 

3 

2 5 

3 

3.5 

4 

2 

4 

2.7 

4 

5 

4 

8 

5 

3 

5 

6 

5 

20 

5 

80 

6 

10 

6 

40 

6 

70 

APPENDIX 


287 


MR.  W.  K.  BURTON’S  TABLE  OF  COMPARATIVE  EXPOSURES  ‘ 


From  the  “ Photographic  Reference  Book  ” 


Aperture  of  lens 

U.  S.  System  and 
f System 

Sea  and  sky. 

Open  landscape. 

Landscape  with 
heavy  foliage 
in  foreground. 

Under 

trees. 

Up  to 

Fairly  lighted 
interiors. 

Badly 

lighted 

in- 

teriors. 

Up  to 

Portraits  in  good 
studio  light. 

Portraits  (out- 
door) in  bright 
diffused  light. 

Portraits  in 
well  lighted 
ordinary  room. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

m.  s. 

m.  s. 

h.  m. 

m.  s. 

sec. 

m.  s. 

No.  1 = f/4 

lis 

3*5 

4 

0 10 

0 10 

0 2 

0 1 

i 

0 4 

No.  2 = f/5.6 

1 

2*3 

i 

0 20 

0 20 

0 4 

0 2 

4 

0 8 

No.  4 = f/8 

1 

T2 

4 

0 40 

0 40 

0 8 

0 4 

if 

0 16 

No.  8=f/11.3 

2*5 

i 

1 

1 20 

1 20 

0 16 

0 8 

14 

0 32 

No.  IG  = f/lG 

* 

i 

2 

2 40 

2 40 

0 32 

0 16 

2if 

1 4 

No.  32  = f/22.6 

i 

if 

4 

5 20 

5 20 

1 4 

n 32 

54 

2 8 

No.  64  = f /32 

8 

10  40 

10  40 

2 8 

1 4 

Ids 

4 16 

No.  128  = f/45.2 

2if 

16 

21  20 

21  20 

4 16 

2 8 

21 

8 32 

No.  256  = f/64 

H 

Si 

32 

42  40 

42  40 

8 32 

4 16 

42 

17  4 

Or  calling 

1 

6 

Up  to 
480 

480 

Up  to 
5,760 

48 

8 

192 

A TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CORRECT  EXPOSURE  THAT 
SHOULD  BE  GIVEN  FOR  VARIOUS  MOVING 
OBJECTS 

By  W.  D.  Kilbey 

From  the  **  American  Annual  of  Photography,”  1907 

The  table  is  made  out  for  a distance  from  the  camera 
100  times  that  of  the  focus  of  the  lens  ; that  is,  for  a 
6-inch  focus  lens  at  50  feet,  a 7-inch  at  58  feet,  an  8-inch 
at  67  feet,  a 9-inch  at  75  feet,  or  12-inch  at  100  feet. 

* These  are  for  bright  sunlight  in  May,  June,  or  July,  slow  plate  = 16 

H & D = 32  Watkins  = 32  Wynne. 


288  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUKG  PEOPLE 


Toward  At  Right 
the  Angles  to 


Camera. 

the  Camera. 

Man  walking  slowly,  street  scenes  . . . 

sec. 

sec. 

Cattle  grazing 

1 44 

Boating 

A ‘ 

Man  walking,  children  playing,  etc.  . . 

I 44 

Pony  and  trap,  trotting 

jJff  “ 

Cycling,  ordinary 

jio  ‘ 

Man  running  a race  and  jumping  . . . 

jiff !! 

Cycle  racing 

zio 

Horses  galloping 

zho  “ 

If  the  object  is  twice  the  distance,  the  length  of 
allowable  exposure  is  doubled,  and  vice  versa. 


RELATIVE  BRILLIANCY  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTS 
From  the  “ American  Annual  of  Photography  ” 


No. 


I 


45  6789 


June 


Sun  at  Midday, 

21,-1 

Light  of  Magnesium  Lamp 
(burning  1 gram  of 
powder) 

Magnesium  Ribbon,  3 mm. 


wide 

14 

5 

1 

4 

Electric  Arc  Lamp 

35 

11 

2.5 

1 

5 

Oxyhydrogen  Light 

50 

16 

3.6 

1.4 

1 

6 

Gas,  Welsbach  System 

165 

53 

11 

7 

10 

1 

7 

Incandescent  Electric 

Lamp  (24  volts) 

1,600 

533 

115 

46 

32 

10  1 

8 

Oil  of  Petroleum  Lamp 

2,300 

766 

165 

66 

46 

14  1.4  1 

9 

Stearine  Candle 

18,000  6,000  1,300 

515  360  109  11  7 1 

By  means  of  this  table,  the  nine  chief  sources  of 
light  above  given  can  be  compared  with  each  other  as 
to  their  relative  brilliancy. 

Example. — Compared  with  the  sun,  the  Welsbach 
Gas  Light  is  165  less  brilliant,  but  is  10  times  more 
brilliant  than  the  electric  incandescent  lamp,  and  109 
more  brilliant  than  the  light  from  a stearine  candle. 


! 

i 

\ 

•) 

I 


i 


i 

i 

j 

) 

I 

I 


I 


APPENDIX 


289 


290  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


TABLE  OF  THE  SYMBOLS  AND  ATOMIC 
OF  THE  ELEMENTS 


Name  Symbol 

Aluminum A1 

Antimony  (Stibium) Sb 

Argon A 

Arsenic Aa 

Barium Ba 

Beryllium  (Gluciuum) Be 

Bisniutb Bi 

Boron Bo 

Bromine Br 

Cadmium Cd 

Cajsium  O 

Calcium Ca 

Carbou C 

Cerium Ce 

Chlorine Cl 

Chromium Cr 

Cobalt  . . ; Co 

Copper Cu 

Didymium Di 

Erbium E 

Fluorine F 

Gallium Ga 

Germanium Ge 

Glucinum G 

Gold Au 

Helium He 

Hydrogen II 

Indium In 

Iodine I 

Iridium Ir 

Iron Fe 

Lanthanum La 

Leatl  (Plumbum) Pb 

Lithium Li 


Mg 

Mn 


WEIGHTS 


Atomic 

Weight 

27.5 
122.0 

39.9 

75.0 

137.0 
9.4 

208.0 

11.0 
80.0 

112.0 
133  0 

40.0 

12.0 

138.0 

35.5 
52.2 
58.8 

63.4 

145.0 

166.0 

19.0 

68.0 

72.5 
9.4 

196.0 

4.0 

1.0 

113.4 

127.0 

193.0 

56.0 

139.0 

207.0 
7.0 

24.0 

55.0 


Magnesium 
Manganese . 


APPENDIX 


291 


Name 

Symbol 

Atomic 

W'eight 

Mercury 

. . . Hg 

200.0 

Molylxleuum 

. . . Mo 

96.0 

Neodymium 

. . . Nd 

144.0 

Nickel 

58.8 

Niobium  (Columbium)  . . 

. . . Nb 

94.0 

Nitrogen 

14.0 

Osmium 

191.0 

0*3’gen 

16.0 

Palliulium 

106.6 

Phosphorus 

. . . P 

31.0 

Platinum 

194  8 

Potassium  (Kalium)  . . . , 

. . . K 

39.0 

Praseotlynuum 

141.0 

Rhodium 

104.4 

Rubidium 

. . . Rb 

85.4 

Ruthenium 

101.7 

Samarium 

150.0 

Scandium 

. . . Sc 

43.9 

Selenium 

. . . Se 

79.4 

Silicon  (Silicium) 

28.0 

Silver  (Argentum)  .... 

108.0 

Sodium  (Natrium)  .... 

. . . Na 

23.0 

Strontium 

. . . Sr 

87.5 

Sulphur  

. . . S 

32.0 

Tantalum 

. . . Ta 

182.0 

Tellurium 

127.0 

Terbium 

. . . Tb 

128.0 

Thallium 

204.0 

Thorium 

231.5 

Thulium 

171.0 

Tin  (Stannum) 

. . . Sn 

118.0 

Titanium  

. . . Ti 

48.00 

Tungsten  (Wolfram)  . . . , 

. . . W 

184.0 

Uranium 

240.0 

Vanadium 

51.2 

Ytterbium 

172.6 

Yttrium 

89.0 

Zinc 

. . . Zn 

65.0 

Zirconium 

90.0 

292  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


DEVELOPMENT 

The  following  excellent  instructions  in  development 
are  reprinted  from  Cramer's  Manual^  issued  by  the 
G,  Cramer  Dry  Plate  Co.,  St,  Louis : 

Into  a tray  of  proper  size  pour  a sufficient  quantity 
of  developing  solution  to  well  cover  the  plate.  Slide 
in  the  plate,  and  by  a tilt  of  the  tray  cause  the  solu- 
tion to  flow  evenly  over  it.  Another  way  is  to  lay 
the  plate  in  the  dry  dish,  face  up,  and  pour  the 
developer  over  it  in  one  sweep  without  stopping.  A 
tuft  of  filtering  cotton  (kept  for  this  purpose  in  a 
saucer  of  clean  water)  should  be  passed  gently  over 
the  plate  to  remove  any  adhering  air  bubbles.  Rock 
the  dish  occasionally  and  keep  the  plate  well  covered 
with  the  developer,  for  stain  is  apt  to  appear  when 
the  plate  is  exposed  too  much  to  the  action  of  the  air. 

Continue  development  until  sufficient  density  is  ob- 
tained, which  can  be  judged  by  taking  the  plate  out 
of  the  tray  and  holding  it  against  the  red  light  for  a 
short  time.  However,  the  less  a plate  is  exposed  to 
the  developing  light,  the  better. 

If  the  ■plate  was  correctly  exposed  the  high  lights  of 
the  image  will  soon  appear  in  the  developer,  then  the 
half  tones  and  finally  the  detail  in  the  shadows,  and 
if  sufficiently  developed,  the  resulting  negative  will 
have  all  the  desired  printing  qualities,  viz.:  sufficient 
density  with  full  detail,  and  the  parts  of  the  plate 
where  the  light  has  not  acted  will  be  perfectly  clear. 

If  the  plate  was  over-exposed  the  whole  image  will 
appear  simultaneously  as  soon  as  the  action  of  the  de- 
veloper takes  place,  and  the  negative  will  be  flat  and 
lacking  in  contrast. 


APPENDIX 


293 


Lack  of  contrast  may  be  helped  some  by  carrying 
the  development  as  far  as  possible  so  as  to  get  the 
greatest  density,  and  after  fixing,  reducing. 

The  addition  of  bromide  of  2>otassium  to  the 
developer  after  development  has  begun  has  but  little 
effect  on  the  quality  of  the  negative,  and  only  slows 
the  development,  but  its  addition  to  the  developer  be- 
fore it  is  applied  to  the  plate  has  a restraining  effect 
on  the  shadows  and  helps  to  keep  down  fog. 

An  under-exposed  plate  will  develop  slowly  without 
detail  in  the  shadows,  and  will  not  yield  as  good  a 
negative  as  one  that  is  correctly  timed.  The  ex- 
posure should  be  made  over,  but  if  this  is  not  possible, 
a passable  result  may  be  obtained  by  transferring  the 
plate  without  rinsing  to  a tray  containing  pure  water 
at  about  80  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  after  soaking 
awhile,  back  to  fresh  developer.  Another  method 
is  to  use  a diluted  developer  which  works  soft  and 
does  not  fog  the  plate.  The  main  object  in  develop- 
ing an  under-exposed  plate  is  to  obtain  detail  in  the 
shadows.  During  the  necessary  prolonged  develop- 
ment the  plate  must  be  completely  protected  against 
all  traces  of  light.  Should  the  negative,  after  fixing, 
be  found  too  intense  in  the  high  lights,  we  have  in 
persulphate  of  ammonia  an  effective  remedy  to  reduce 
the  same  without  losing  the  detail  in  the  shadows. 
An  attempt  to  force  development  by  an  overdose  of 
alkali  will  always  result  in  failure. 

After  developing  is  completed,  rinse  the  plate  well, 
and  place  it  in  the  fixing  bath  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
solving the  bromide  of  silver  which  has  not  been  acted 
upon  by  the  light  and  the  developer.  After  all  the 
bromide  of  silver  appears  to  have  been  dissolved  in 


294  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  fixing  bath,  leave  the  plate  therein  at  least  ten 
minutes  longer  to  insure  permanency  and  freedom 
from  stain. 

Plates  that  are  left  in  the  acid  fixing  and  harden- 
ing bath  for  half  an  hour,  will  not  soften  in  the  wash 
water  nor  show  reticulation  (puckering  of  the  film) 
even  in  warm  weather;  they  will  dry  quickly  and 
not  be  so  apt  to  gain  undesirable  density,  provided 
the  fixing  bath  is  in  good  condition.  If  the  bath  is 
too  strong,  and  not  stirred  before  using,  it  will  cause 
parallel  lines  on  the  negative,  due  to  the  differing 
densities  of  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  bath. 

All  tray  developers  work  best  at  a temperature  of 
65  to  70  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

If  the  dark  room  is  cold,  the  developer  should  be 
slightly  warmer  or  more  concentrated. 

If  the  dark  room  is  hot,  the  developer  should  be 
colder  or  more  diluted. 

A concentrated  developer  works  fast  and  with 
much  density. 

A diluted  developer  works  slower  but  with  finer 
detail  and  is  best  for  short  exposures. 

If  the  developer  is  too  concentrated  or  too  warm  it 
will  produce  fog,  unless  it  is  restrained  by  the  addi- 
tion of  bromide  of  potassium  solution. 

If  too  much  diluted,  it  is  prone  to  produce  stain  by 
the  long  immersion  required  ; also  peculiar  streaks. 

Weak  negatives  with  clear  shadows  are  due  to  un- 
der-development or  too  weak  developer. 

Weak  negatives  with  plenty  of  detail  in  the  shadows 
are  due  to  over-exposure  or  too  flat  lighting  of  subject 
or  too  weak  developer  (use  less  water). 

Strong  negatives  with  too  much  contrast  are  due  to 


APPENDIX 


295 


under-exposure  or  too  strong  developer  containing  too 
much  alkali.  Add  more  water  and  use  less  carbonate 
of  soda  or  potassium,  as  an  excess  of  alkali  blocks 
the  whites. 

Too  much  intensity  is  the  result  of  the  developer 
being  too  warm  or  too  strong,  or  development  carried 
too  far.  Negatives  dried  in  warm,  sultry  air  assume 
more  intensity  than  when  dried  in  a cool  place  with 
draft. 

Frilling,  softening  of  the  film,  film  leaving  the  glass, 
are  caused  by  too  high  temperature.  When  this 
occurs  cool  the  developer  and  use  fixing  and  harden- 
ing bath. 

For  reticulation  (puckering  of  the  film)  leave  the 
negative  in  the  acid  fixing  bath  for  half  an  hour  to 
harden  the  film  way  through. 


DEVELOPERS 
FACTORS  FOR  DEVELOPERS 


From  Watkins  on  Development, 
5 Adurol. 

5 Quinol. 

6 Imogen  sulphite. 

7 Glycin. 

9 Eikonogen. 

10  Kachin. 

10  Pyrocatechin. 


in  Photo-Miniature,  No,  66 
10  Ortol. 

12  Diogen. 

18  Amidol  (2  gr.  per  oz.) 
20  Ediuol. 

30  Metol. 

40  Rodiual. 

60  Diamidophenol. 


PYRO-SODA  OR  PYRO-POTASH  DEVELOPER 


Grains  of  pyro 

Factor 

Grains  bromide 

Factor 

per  oz. 

without  bromide. 

per  oz. 

with  bromide. 

1 

18 

9 

2 

12 

k 

5 

3 

10 

1 

4J 

4 

8 

1 

4 

5 

6i 

2 

3 

For  Watkins'  System  of  Development  see  Photo- Miniature  No.  34 


296  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


Following  are  two  developers  for  special  purposes 
given  in  Cramer's  Manual : 


DEVELOPER  FOR  LINE  WORK 


{Black  and  White) 

Pure  Water 30  ozs 

Cramer’s  Dry  Sulphite  of  Soda  ...  2 ozs 

(Which  will  test  32°  by  Hydrometer.) 

Edinol 150  grains  .... 

Bromide  of  Potassium 100  grains  .... 

Carbonate  of  Potassium  . . . . 2J  ozs 

Use  full  strength. 


Metric. 
900  c c m 
60  grams 

10  grams 
7 grams 
75'  grams 


This  developer,  with  special  contrast  plates,  pro- 
duces negatives  of  great  intensity  and  absolute  clear- 
ness, desirable  for  copies  of  pencil  sketches,  pen  draw- 
ings, line  work,  etc. 


TROPICAL  DEVELOPER 
(For  hot  climates  where  no  ice  is  available) 

Metric. 

Pure  Water 50  ounces 1200  c c m 

Cramer’s  Dry  Sulphite  of  Soda  . 1 ounce 24  giams 

Bromide  of  Potassium  . . . .20  grains 1 gram 

Citric  Acid 20  grains 1 gram 

For  use : To  4 ozs.  of  the  above  solution  add  ten  grains  dry 
Amidol  ; or  to  200  c c m of  above  solution  add  1 gram  dry  Amidol. 

Before  developing  place  the  plate  in 

Water 60  parts 

Formalin 1 part 

for  about  three  minutes,  then  rinse  well  and  place  in 

the  developer. 

Fix  in  the  acid  fixing  and  hardening  bath. 


The  following  analysis  of  the  elements  of  a de- 
veloper, from  Cramer's  Jfanual,  is  also  of  interest : 

The  carbonates  of  soda  or  potassium  are  added  to 
give  the  developing  agent  the  alkalinity  required  for 


APPENDIX 


297 


action,  whereas  the  sulphite  is  added  to  prevent 
rapid  decomposition  and  discolouration. 

Carbonate  of  potassium  is  of  the  same  strength  as 
pure  dry  carbonate  of  soda. 

These  alkalis  may  be  substituted  for  one  another  in 
any  formula.  Two  ounces  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda 
equal  five  ounces  of  crystal  carbonate  of  soda,  provided 
the  dry  carbonate  of  soda  is  really  chemically  pure. 

For  many  years  it  has  been  generally  believed  that 
an  excess  of  alkali  gave  softness  and  detail,  and  for 
this  reason  a largely  increased  quantity  of  alkali  was 
used  for  short  exposures,  though  it  was  generally 
known  that  beyond  a certain  quantity  it  caused  chem- 
ical fog.  Experiments  conclusively  prove  that  when 
the  plate  is  developed  the  same  length  of  time,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  alkali  used,  the  more  rapid  the 
reduction,  and  the  greater  the  contrast.  Therefore  if 
a negative  which  is  properly  lighted  and  timed,  shows 
too  much  contrast,  reduce  the  quantity  of  alkali,  or 
increase  the  quantity  of  water  until  the  image  shows 
proper  balance.  If  a properly  timed  negative  lacks 
contrast,  increase  the  quantity  of  the  alkali,  or  use 
less  water  until  sufficient  contrast  is  obtained. 

Doubling  the  quantity  of  water  in  normal  pyro 
developer  reduces  contrast  because  the  deposit  of 
silver  in  the  strongly  lighted  portions  of  the  plate 
proceeds  slower,  giving  more  time  for  the  half  tones 
and  shadows  to  gain  their  maximum  strength. 

For  the  same  reason,  reducing  the  alkali  reduces 
the  contrast  between  the  high  lights  and  lower  tones 
of  the  negatives. 

Bromide  of  potassium  is  added  to  the  developer  to 
counteract  the  effect  of  over-exposure,  its  action  being 


298  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


to  produce  contrast  and  clearness  by  restraining  the 
development  of  the  shadows.  For  this  reason  the 
contrast  developer  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  con- 
tains a large  dose  of  it.  A very  small  quantity  of 
bromide  of  potassium  or  of  contrast  developer  is  of 
benefit  as  an  addition  to  fresh  developer,  if  it  does  not 
work  perfectly  clear.  One  drop  of  a solution  (1  part 
bromide  of  potassium  in  10  of  water)  usually  being 
sufficient  for  two  ounces  of  developer. 


The  following  is  from  the  American  Annual  of 
Photograph y : 

The  tendency  of  a greater  or  less  quantity  of  any 
factor  in  the  developer  is  as  follows : 

Developer  itself  {Pyro,  Eikonogen,  etc.) : 

More — clogs  up  whites  ; too  much  contrast. 

Less — slow  development ; lack  of  brilliancy. 

Alkali : 

More — quick  development ; dense,  flat  negatives ; 

fog  and  granulation.  , 

Less — slow  development ; contrast. 

Sulphite  : 

More — colder  tone. 

Less — warmer  tone  ; stain. 

Water : 

More — thin  in  high  lights ; detail. 

Less — contrast. 

Temperature : 

Should  be  about  70  deg.  F. 

Higher — intensity;  fog. 

Lower — flatness. 


APPENDIX 


299 


The  warmer  and  closer  the  atmosphere  in  which 
the  negative  is  dried,  the  more  intense  it  becomes. 


Mr.  Alfred  Watkins  is  quoted  as  saying: 

“ In  a paper  read  before  the  Royal  Photographic  So- 
ciety, I described  a comparison  of  seven  developers, 
namely : pyro,  metol,  ortol,  adurol,  hydroquinone, 
kachin  and  glycin.  All  were  made  up  with  the  same 
formula  (no  bromide)  and  compared  under  the  same 
circumstances.  The  result  may  be  summed  up : 

“ Effect  on  speed  of  plate,  very  slight  and  doubtful 
difference. 

“ Searching  out  detail,  no  difference. 

“ Ultimate  density  power,  no  difference. 

“ Appearance  of  image,  wide  difference. 

“ Speed  of  working,  no  difference. 

“There  is  one  respect  in  which  developers  differ. 
One  class  of  developers  (represented  by  metol,  rodinal 
and  weak  pyro)  causes  all  the  tones  to  appear  very 
early  in  the  course  of  development,  and  density  seems 
to  follow  with  comparative  slowness.  This  class  has 
the  reputation  of  giving  thin  negatives  because  users 
are  deceived  by  the  rapid  appearance  of  image  and 
take  the  plate  out  too  soon.  In  the  second  class  of 
developers  (represented  by  hydroquinone,  (quinol), 
strong  pyro  and  adurol)  the  lowest  tones  or  detail  ap- 
pear slowly,  and  by  the  time  they  are  out  the  high 
lights  have  attained  quite  a respectable  amount  of 
density,  and  density  is  afterward  attained  quite 
rapidly.  The  usual  tendency  with  these  developers  is 
to  over-develop  and  thus  get  too  much  contrast. 

“ It  really  does  not  matter  which  developer  you  use 


300  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


if  you  take  the  plate  out  of  it  at  the  right  stage  of 
contrast ; for  all  (variations  in  bromide  excepted)  give 
identical  negatives  if  their  action  is  stopped  at  the 
right  moment.  For  general  purposes  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  use  a developer  which  is  neither  in  the  first 
class  nor  the  second,  but  intermediate,  density  follow- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  image  at  a comfortable  rate. 
It  is  a peculiarity  of  pyro  that  it  belongs  to  the  first 
or  the  second  class  according  to  the  grains  of  pyro  to 
the  ounce  of  developer.” 


TANK  DEVELOPMENT 

HURTER  AND  DRIFFIELD’S  STANDARD  DEVELOPER, 
FOR  TANK  USE 


Pyro 8 parts. 

S^ium  Carbonate 40  “ 

Sodium  Sulphite 40  “ 

Water 912  “ 


1,000 

No  bromide  of  pota-ssium.  Use  at  65°. 


KODAK  TANK  DEVELOPMENT 
From  Kodak  Adrertiaemeni 

Standard.  1 Powder.  Temp.  65°  Falir.  Time  of 
Development^  20  Minutes. 


Time  of 

Temperature.  Development. 

70  degrees 15  minutes. 

68  “ 17  “ 

65  “ normal 20  “ 

60  “ 25  “ 

55  " 30  “ 

50  “ 35  “ 

45  “ 40  “ 


APPENDIX 


301 


Standard.  2 Foicders.  Temp.  65°  Fahr.  Time  of 
Development,  10  Minutes. 


Time  of 

Temperature.  Development. 

70  degrees 8 minutes. 

68  “ 9 “ 

6.7  " normal 10  “ 

56  “ 13  “ 

50  “ 15  “ 

44  " 17  “ 


Developer  must  never  be  warmer  than  70°  Fahr. 

It  will  be  noted  that  it  requires  just  double  the  time 
for  development  between  65  degrees,  the  normal  tem- 
perature, and  45  degrees  when  using  one  powder,  and 
nearly  double  the  time  when  employing  double  strength 
developer. 

The  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
will  make  some  difference  in  the  results,  but  not  suffi- 
ciently so  to  be  taken  into  serious  account.  At  low 
temperature  some  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in  dis- 
solving the  developing  powders ; crushing  the  powders 
very  fine  and  adding  slowly  to  the  water  while  stirring 
will  lessen  this  difficulty. 

From  a Kodak  Pamphlet. 

It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  sea  water  may 
safely  be  used  in  compounding  the  developer  and  for 
all  the  processes  of  Tank  or  Machine  Development, 
provided  only  that  the  final  rinsing  is  in  clean  fresh 
water. 


TANK  DEVELOPER  FORMULAE 
From  Burke  and  .Tames' s (Chicago)  Pamphlet  on  the  Ingento  Tank. 
GLYCIN-STOCK  SOLUTION 
(This  developer  is  especially  recommended.) 


Glycin 120  grains. 

Sulphite  of  soda  dried  (Anhydrous)  ....  360  “ 

Carbonate  of  soda  dried  (Anhydrous)  . . . 360  “ 

Water 35  ounces. 


302  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


For  20  minute  developer,  temperature  between  65 
and  70  degrees:  To  each  part  of  stock  solution,  add 
3 parts  water. 

For  one  hour  developer,  temperature  between  65 
and  70  degrees:  To  each  part  of  stock  solution,  add 
9 parts  water. 


HYDBOCHINON-STOCK  SOLUTION 

Hydrochinou 90  grains. 

Sodium  Sulphite  dried  (Anhydrous)  . . . 400  “ 

Sodium  Carbonate  dried  (Anhydrous)  . . . 390  “ 

Water 30  ounces. 

For  20  minute  developer,  temperature  between  65 
and  70  degrees : To  each  part  of  stock  solution,  add 
3 parts  water. 


INTENSIFIERS  AND  REDUCERS 

The  following  formula  is  given  in  Cramer's  Manual, 
for  reducing  negatives  which  are  too  dense  all  over, 
and  lack  contrast,  owing  to  over-exposure  and  over- 
development : 

A 

Water 16  ounces. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda 1 ounce. 

(Which  will  test  about  15°  by  Hydrometer.) 

B 

Water 16  ounces. 

Ked  Prnssiate  of  Potassium 1 ounce. 

As  this  solution  is  affected  by  light,  the  bottle  con- 
taining it,  should  be  of  amber  colour  or  wrapped  in 
opaque  paper  and  kept  in  the  dark  when  not  in  use. 

Mix  for  immediate  use  : — 


A 8 ozs. 

B 1 oz. 


APPENDIX 


303 


Use  in  subdued  daylight. 

The  negative  can  be  placed  in  this  solution  directly 
after  fixing.  If  a dry  negative  is  to  be  reduced,  it 
must  be  soaked  in  water  for  at  least  half  an  hour 
before  applying  the  solution.  To  avoid  streaks,  al- 
ways rinse  the  negative  before  holding  it  up  for  ex- 
amination. As  soon  as  sufiiciently  reduced  wash 
thoroughly. 


For  intensifying  negatives,  Cramer’s  Manual  gives 
the  following : 


No.  1. 

This  solution  will  keep  and  work  well  until  exhausted. 


Metric. 

16  ounces  of  Water 500  com. 

120  grains  of  Bichloride  of  Mercury  ....  8 grams. 

120  grains  of  Bromide  of  Potassium  ....  8 grams. 


No.  2. 

Number  2 should  be  mixed  fresh. 

8 ounces  of  Water 250  com. 

1 ounce  of  Cramer’s  Dry  Sulphite  of  Soda  . 30  grams. 


(Which  will  test  60°  by  Hydrometer.) 

After  the  negative  is  well  fixed  and  washed,  immerse 
in  No.  1 until  it  has  become  thoroughly  whitened,  and 
after  rinsing  carefully  place  it  in  No.  2,  leaving  it  there 
until  entirely  cleared.  In  case  sufficient  intensification 
has  not  been  gained,  wash  for  ten  minutes,  repeat  the 
operation  and  finally  wash  well.  If  after  intensifica- 
tion the  negative  is  too  dense  it  may  be  reduced  by 
placing  it  for  a few  seconds  in  water  IG  ozs..  Hypo.  1 oz. 

If  the  negative  has  not  been  thoroughly  fixed  and 
washed  before  intensification,  stains  will  ensue. 


304  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


The  following  are  taken  from  the  American  An- 
nual of  Photography^  1907 : 

INTENSIFIER  (MERCURIC)  WITH  SODIUM  SULPHITE, 
FOR  GELATINE  DRY-PLATES 

AVhiten  the  negative  in  the  saturated  solution  of 
mercuric  chloride,  wash  and  blacken  with  a solution 
of  sulphite  of  sodium  1 in  5.  Wash  well. 

The  reduction  is  perfect,  with  a positive  black  tone. 

REDUCER  FOR  GELATINE  DRY-PLATES 


Perchloride  of  Iron 30  gr. 

Citric  Acid 60  gr. 

Water 1 pint. 


PRINTING  PROCESSES 

THE  PLATINUM  PROCESS 

The  following  brief  summary  of  the  platinum  proc- 
ess is  taken  from  A.  Horsley  Hinton’s  “ Platinotype 
Printing”  (Amateur  Photographer  Library).  This 
book  contains,  besides  very  full  descriptions  of  methods, 
instructions  for  colour-toning  of  platinum  and  for 
glycerine  development. 

The  negative  and  printing-frame  having  been  thor- 
oughly dried,  the  paper  is  exposed  in  the  printing- 
frame  in  the  ordinary  manner  until  the  image  is  seen 
mapped  out  in  grey  or  orange-grey  tint.  It  is  then 
placed  upon  the  oxalate  bath  with  a pushing,  sliding 
movement,  the  bath  being  about  70°  for  cold-bath 
paper,  or  about  170°  for  hot  bath,  the  solution  being 
roughly  one  part  of  oxalate  to  four  or  six  of  water  for 


APPENDIX 


305 


cold  bath,  or  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  oxalate 
to  fifty-two  ounces  of  water  (or  a slightly  super-satur- 
ated solution)  for  hot  bath.  Development  occupies  but 
a few  seconds — more  does  no  harm — when  the  print  is 
transferred  to  a solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  water 
of  the  strength  of  one  in  seventy.  After  this  the  prints 
are  leisurely  subjected  to  one  or  two  successive  acid 
baths  of  the  same  strength,  and  then  finally  washed 
in  water  for  about  fifteen  minutes. 


SPECIAL  TONES  ON  PLATINUM 
Sepia  Tones 

From  Wilson's  Photographic  Magazine 

The  use  of  zinc  oxalate  for  obtaining  warm  brown 
tones  with  ordinary  black  platinum  paper  was  first 
suggested  by  Dr.  R.  Jacoby.  He  now  states  that  rich 
warm  sepia  tones  can  be  produced  by  using  the  fol- 


lowing developer : 

Potassium  oxalate 200  parts. 

Ammonium  phosphate 50  parts. 

Copper  sulphate 2 parts. 

Water 1000  parts. 


The  prints  should  be  left  for  at  least  five  minutes  in 
this,  otherwise  they  lose  a lot  in  the  fixing  bath. 


For  brown  tones,  A.  Horsley  Hinton,  in  “ Platino- 
type  Printing  ” suggests  a dram  weight  of  mercury 
bichloride  added  to  three  or  four  ounces  of  the  oxalate 
developer.  Prints  are  developed  and  cleared  similarly 
to  black  prints. 


306  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


THE  GLYCERINE  PROCESS 

From  the  “American  Annual  of  Photography'' 

The  “ Glycerine  Process,”  or  the  process  of  develop- 
ing platinotype  prints  by  application  of  the  develop- 
ing agent  with  the  brush,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  fascinating  of  photographic  processes, 
owing  to  its  far-reaching  possibilities. 

By  this  method  of  developing  platinotype  paper, 
many  negatives,  which  have  been  discarded  on  account 
of  the  dim,  flat,  non-contrasty  results  which  they  yield, 
may  be  made  to  give  fair  results,  carefully  printed, 
and,  in  the  hands  of  one  possessing  a little  artistic 
skill,  snappy,  animated  pictures  may  be  obtained.  On 
the  other  hand,  from  the  sharp  and  hard  negative, 
soft,  sketchy  effects  may  be  obtained. 

There  are  required  for  this  process : some  glass  jars ; 
some  soft  brushes,  varying  from  the  fine  spotter  and 
the  Japanese  brush  to  the  \ % inch  duster,  and  several 
pieces  of  special  blotting  paper. 

Print  the  paper  a trifle  deeper  than  for  the  ordinary 
method  of  developing.  Place  the  print  face  up  on  a 
piece  of  clean  glass  (should  the  print  curl  so  that  it  is 
unmanageable,  moisten  the  glass  with  glycerine),  and, 
with  the  broad  camel’s  hair  brush,  thinly  coat  the  en- 
tire print  with  pure  glycerine,  blotting  same  off  in 
three  or  four  seconds;  then  re-coat  more  thickly  such 
portions  as  are  desired  especially  restrained,  or  the  de- 
tails partly  or  entirely  eliminated.  Now  brush  or 
paint  such  portion  of  the  print  as  is  first  desired  with 
solution  of  one  part  glycerine  atid  four  parts  normal 
developer,  blotting  the  portion  being  developed  from 
time  to  time  to  avoid  developing  too  far.  Full  strength 


APPENDIX 


307 


developer  (without  glycerine)  is  employed  where  a 
pronounced  or  deep  shade  is  wanted.  [If  desired, 
another  solution,  equal  parts  glycerine  and  water,  may 
be  kept  at  hand  and  used  where  caution  is  advisable.] 
When  any  part  of  the  print  has  reached  the  full  de- 
velopment desired,  blot  that  portion  carefully  with 
the  blotter  and  coat  with  pure  glycerine. 

THE  KALLITYPE 

Photographic  Times  Formula 

Coat  stout  but  fine  grained  paper  with  a solution  of 


Sodium  ferric-oxalate 6 drachma 

Water 2^  ounces 


Dry  quickly  without  the  application  of  heat,  and 
print  till  the  deeper  shadow  portions  of  the  picture 
become  visible.  On  removal  of  the  print  from  the 
frame,  immerse  into  a per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  acidified  slightly  with  citric  acid,  when  the 
picture  will  develop  brilliantly  and  with  all  detail. 

Finally  wash  in  pure  water.  A yellow  tinge  may  be 
washed  away  with  a 5 per  cent,  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 


» SALTED,”  OR  PLAIN  SILVER  PAPER 

From  the  " American  Annual  of  Photography,”  1902 

Sensitizing  Plain  and  Albumen  Paper. — The  usual 
method  of  rendering  paper  of  any  kind  sensitive  to 
light  is  to  float  it  for  a varying  length  of  time  on  a 
solution  of  silver  nitrate,  having  previously  salted  it, 
if  it  be  plain  paper,  with  some  chloride,  usually  chlo- 
ride of  ammonium.  In  practice  it  has  been  found 
that  the  strength  of  the  silver  bath  should  not  fall  be- 
low thirty  grains  of  silver  to  the  ounce  of  water,  lest 


308  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


the  albumen  be  dissolved ; and  that,  save  in  excep- 
tional cases,  there  is  no  need  of  a greater  strength  than 
sixty  to  sixty-five  grains  to  the  ounce.  The  precise 
strength  necessary  to  produce  the  best  results  with 
any  given  brand  of  albumen  paper  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  chloride  used  in  salting ; a paper  weak  in 
chloride  requiring  a weak  bath,  while  one  rich  in 
chloride  demands  a strong  one. 

Formuloe  for  Sensitizing  Bath. — For  very  strong 
negatives : 

No.  1. 


Silver  nitrate 35  gr. 

Water 1 oz. 


Print  in  full  sunlight. 

For  thin  negatives : 

No.  2. 


Silver  nitrate 80  Rt. 

Water 1 oz. 


Print  in  the  shade. 

Floating  the  Paper. — There  should  be  enough  of 
the  bath  poured  in  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  pan  to 
a depth  of  at  least  half  an  inch,  and  it  should  have 
been  most  carefully  freed  from  all  impurities  before 
the  sensitizing  is  begun.  Impurities  and  air-bubbles 
are  the  two  great  enemies  of  the  sensitizing  room. 
Grasp  the  paper  by  the  two  opposite  corners,  albumen 
side  down,  bring  the  hands  together,  and  lower  the 
convex  side  to  the  surface  of  the  bath ; separate  the 
hands,  and  the  paper  will  float  on  the  surface.  If  it 
shows  an  obstinate  tendency  to  curl  up,  gently  breathe 
upon  it.  This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  placing 
the  paper,  the  night  before  sensitizing,  in  a damp 
place.  Now  raise  one  corner  and  look  for  air-bubbles. 


APPENDIX 


309 


If  any  are  found,  break  them  with  the  point  of  a glass 
rod,  and  again  lower  the  paper.  When  it  has  floated 
the  proper  length  of  time,  from  one  to  three  minutes 
being  the  usual  time,  raise  it  by  one  corner  very 
slowly,  until  another  corner  is  free,  which  is  then 
grasped  by  the  other  hand  and  the  paper  slowly  with- 
drawn, allowed  to  drain  a minute  into  a dish,  and 
hung  up  by  one  corner  to  dry  in  the  dark,  or  yellow 
light. 

Points  in  Sensitizing. — 1.  Have  the  paper  damp 
before  silvering. 

2.  Before  floating  ascertain  the  condition  of  the 
bath  as  to  strength  and  alkalinity. 

3.  Do  not  allow  the  paper  to  become  bone-dry 
before  printing  if  you  wish  to  have  rich  prints.  Of 
course,  it  must  be  dry  enough  not  to  adhere  to  the 
negative ; anything  more  than  this  is  not  only  useless, 
but  fatal  to  securing  the  best  results. 


Toning  Solution. 

A. 


Chloride  of  gold ■ . . . 1 gr. 

Water 20  oz. 

B. 

Acetate  of  soda 15  gr. 

Water 1 oz. 


C. 

Saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

When  solution  is  complete,  add  B to  A,  and  add 
10-15  drops  of  C,  allow  to  stand  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  before  using.  Tone  only  until  the  half-tones 
are  somewhat  bluish  by  reflected  light. 

This  bath  will  keep. 


Fixing  Bath. 

Hyjxwnlphite  of  soda 

Water 

Ammonia 


4 oz. 
20  oz. 
J dr. 


i 


310  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUXG  PEOPLE 


REDUCTION  OF  BLUE  PRINTS 
By  Samuel  Purnell 

' From  Camera  Craft 

To  secure  the  best  results  from  a blue-print,  as 
manipulated  in  the  usual  way,  is  more  difficult  than  is 
generally  supposed.  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  print  it 
to  just  the  proper  depth.  If  under-printed  it  is  of  no 
value ; if  over-printed  it  has  heretofore  been  consid- 
ered also  valueless.  I have  discovered  that  an  over- 
printed blue-print  may  be  cheapl}’’,  quickly,  evenly 
and  successfully  reduced  to  just  the  density  desired, 
and  without  any  damage  to  the  print.  The  method 
employed  is  so  practical  that  it  is  advisable  to  inten- 
tionally over-print  all  blue-prints,  so  as  to  be  sure  they 
are  printed  deeply  enough,  and  afterward  reduce 
them  by  this  process. 

When  the  finished  and  dried  blue-print  is  seen  to  be 
too  dense,  soak  it  in  water  for  a few  minutes.  In  a 
tray  put  a pint  of  water  and  dissolve  in  it  about  a 
heaping  teaspoonful  of  bicarbonate  of  soda ; the  exact 
quantity  is  not  material.  Immerse  the  blue-print  in 
this  and  rock  the  tray.  Do  this  by  daylight.  Re- 
duction proceeds  at  once  and  rapidly,  the  speed  de- 
pending on  the  alkalinity  of  the  bath.  Just  before 
the  print  is  reduced  to  your  liking,  transfer  it  to  an- 
other tray  in  which  fresh  water  is  running.  Wash  it 
for  about  five  minutes  and  then  lay  the  print  out  to 
dry. 

PRINTING  ON  SILK 

From  the  “ American  Annual  of  Photography,"  1899 


Boiling  water 80  onnces 

Chloride  of  ammonintn 100  gr. 

Iceland  moss 00  gr. 


APPENDIX 


311 


When  nearly  cold,  filter  and  immerse  the  silk  for 
fifteen  minutes.  Sensitize  for  fifteen  minutes  in  an 
acid  20-grain  silver  bath,  and  when  dry  stretch  the 
fabric  over  cardboard.  Print  deeper  than  usual  and 
tone  in 


Water 20  ounces 

Acetate  of  sodium 2 drachms 

Chloride  of  gold 3 gr. 

Common  whiting  a few  gr. 


« FAKE ” PHOTOGRAPHY  AND  SPECIAL 
EFFECTS 

FmELIGHT  EFFECTS  BY  DAYLIGHT 

(See  illustration  facing  page  202) 

From  an  article  by  Henry  Essenhiyh  Corke,  reprinted  in  7'he  Camera 

The  sitter  posed  on  a raised  platform,  so  as  to  be  on  a 
level  with  the  bottom  of  the  window,  in  this  case  of 
ground-glass  and  about  two  feet  from  the  floor.  The  sit- 
ter should  be  as  near  the  source  of  light  as  possible,  so 
that  the  lighting  may  be  rather  concentrated.  All  the 
dark  blinds  are  then  drawn,  leaving  only  a patch  open 
about  two  feet  square,  just  in  front  of  the  sitter,  where 
the  fire  is  supposed  to  be.  A fender  and  hearth-rug 
are  then  placed  in  front  of  the  light  on  the  floor.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  found  convenient  to  place  a mir- 
ror in  the  “ fireplace,”  so  as  to  give  an  extra  amount 
of  reflected  light  upward  onto  the  face  of  the  sitter. 
A small  strip  of  white  paper  may  be  placed  inside  the 
fender  to  look  like  the  white  hearth. 

It  is  desirable  to  use  a dark  background,  composed 
of  dark  curtains ; these  should  not  be  allowed  to  hang 
in  folds,  but  should  be  stretched  tightly,  or  awkward 
Streaks  of  high  light  will  possibly  show  on  the  folds. 


312  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


Exactly  the  same  effect  can  be  obtained  in  the  same 
way  in  an  ordinary  room  and  at  an  ordinary  window. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  block  up  the  window  with 
brown  paper,  from  the  top  downward,  as  may  be  re- 
quired, so  as  to  give  an  opening  of  suitable  size  as  low 
as  can  conveniently  be  managed.  The  sitter  is  then 
raised  to  a level  with  the  opening,  using  a large  din- 
ing table  or  boards  supported  on  trestles  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  other  arrangements  are  the  same  as  just 
described. 

Alternatively,  if  French  windows  are  available, 
they  may  be  used,  and  there  is  then  no  need  for  a 
platform.  The  sitter  is  posed  on  the  floor,  and  a large 
white  sheet  thrown  down  outside  the  windows  will  be 
found  to  throw  a bright  reflected  light  into  the  room. 
If  by  any  chance  the  ground  outside  should  be  cov- 
ered with  snow,  the  same  effect  is  secured  without  the 
sheet. 

The  exposure  should  err  on  the  underside,  as  a 
rather  hard  negative  is  best  suited  for  this  class  of 
subject.  Of  course,  the  actual  exposure  will  vary 
according  to  many  prevailing  circumstances,  but  it 
may  be  some  guide  to  say  that  with  about  two  feet 
of  ground-glass,  with  the  sitter  about  two  or  three 
feet  from  it,  using  a lens  working  at  f /4.5,  about  two 
and  a half  seconds  will  be  about  right  with  a fast 
plate. 

In  development  the  high  lights  should  be  allowed  to 
attain  sufficient  density, and  no  thought  need  betaken 
of  the  shadows.  I should  also  advise  a pyrosoda 
developer,  as  with  it  the  high  lights  are  not  so  likely 
to  clog  up  as  when  hydrokinone  or  such  developers 
are  used. 


APPENDIX 


313 


DUPLICATE  PHOTOGRAPHY 

(See  illustration  facing  page  270) 


Segment  Duplicator.  (Cut  reproduced  from 
Photographic  Amusements.)  This  consists  of  a disk 
of  pasteboard  or  black  material  fitting  the  lens  front 
exactly,  with  a slice  taken  off  on  one  side.  The  proper 
size  of  the  opening  should  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment ; it  should  be  just  large  enough  to  expose  half  of 
the  plate.  After  a photograph  has  been  made  on  one 
half  of  the  plate,  the  disk  is  turned  around  so  as  to 
expose  the  other  half.  Devices  of  this  sort  may  be 
bought. 


Another  Duplicator.  (Cut  reproduced  from  the 
Photo  Era.)  This  is  made  from  heavy  cardboard, 
and  the  hole  should  fit  over  the  lens  front  snugly. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  duplicator  always 


314  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOURG  PEOPLE 


cuts  oif  a good  deal  of  light,  necessitating  a longer 
exposure. 

The  following  extract  is  from  an  article  in  the 
Photo  Era  of  September,  1907. 

The  secret  of  success  . . . is  to  blend  or  vig- 

nette the  two  exposures  into  each  other  in  such  a way 
as  to  conceal  the  place  where  they  come  together. 
This  the  segment  article  will  not  always  do,  as  it  is 
purchased ; but  it  is  easily  made  right,  if  large  enough 
to  permit  of  adjustment. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  divide  the  ground- 
glass  of  the  camera  into  four  equal  parts  by  drawing 
a line  across  its  centre  when  placed  horizontally,  and 
another  intersecting  this,  when  set  up  for  perpen- 
dicular views.  This  will  give  a dividing-line  to  work 
by  — a guide  for  future  operations. 

Next  put  the  duplicator  over  the  front  of  the  lens, 
and  note  how  much  image  shows  on  the  ground-glass. 
If  it  gives  more  than  what  covers  half  of  the  plate  it 
is  useless,  and  should  be  returned,  if  possible,  to  the 
maker  or  dealer.  If  this  cannot  -be  done,  cement  or 
glue  a piece  of  stiff,  black  cardboard  or  heavy  paper 
over  the  disk,  allowing  it  to  extend  over  the  segment 
one-eighth  of  an  inch.  Now  see  how  it  works.  Sup- 
pose it  does  not  permit  the  image  to  come  up  to  the 
centre  line.  Then  it  will  have  to  be  pared  down 
gradually,  until  the  dark  side  of  the  ground-glass  ex- 
tends up  to  within  a quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  line. 
Now  turn  it  around,  so  that  the  image  is  shown  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  focusing-screen,  being  careful 
to  see  that  both  sides  bring  the  two  images  together 
in  the  same  way  at  the  centre  line.  One  will  likely 
have  now  noticed  the  necessity  for  care  in  making 


APPENDIX 


315 


this  preliminary  test.  One  will  have  seen  the  gradual 
blending  of  the  fully-lighted  view,  which  first  began 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  from  the  centre  line, 
and  gradually  lessened  until  the  image  disappeared 
altogether  about  the  same  distance  beyond  the  centre. 
This  blending  is  the  crucial  point;  it’ either  makes  or 
mars  the  resulting  negative. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  when  adjusting  the  du- 
plicator on  the  front  of  the  lens  to  get  the  straight 
edge  of  the  segment  perfectly  perpendicular  or  hori- 
zontal, according  to  the  way  one  is  composing  the 
shape  of  the  picture.  Failing  in  this,  one  will  have 
a portion  of  the  negative  unexposed.  This  is  one  of 
the  things  that  this  simple  device  leaves  to  the  care 
of  the  operator,  and  on  his  skill  in  setting  it  depends 
the  future  of  his  composition. 

SNOW-STORMS 
Maximilian  Toch 

In  the  ''  American  Annual  of  Photography,"  1899 

To  photograph  the  snow  falling  is  by  no  means  easy, 
unless  certain  conditions  are  obtained,  and  even  then, 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  carelessness  in  develop- 
ment will  obliterate  the  flakes. 

To  begin  with,  it  is  impossible  to  photograph  the 
snowflakes  against  a sky  background.  . . . Bear- 

ing this  in  mind  I selected  a spot  where  the  back- 
ground was  a row  of  brick  houses,  and  against  which 
the  white  flakes  stood  out.  . . . The  picture  was 

taken  in  one-fiftieth  of  a second,  and  it  came  up  in  the 
developer  as  easily  as  if  it  had  had  a second  or  two. 
I took  five  more  the  same  day,  but  with  the  exception 
of  one  other  they  were  monstrosities.  There  was  one, 


316  PHOTOGKAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


of  a man  struggling  against  the  storm,  with  a big  um- 
brella, and  the  flakes  were  coming  down  furiously, 
but,  alas ! when  I developed  it  his  black  figure  was 
streaked  and  spotted  with  monstrous  flakes  which 
were  falling  between  him  and  the  camera,  and  they 
were  so  horribly  amplified,  that  I discarded  the  nega- 
tive after  the  first  print.  I could  have  corrected  the 
negative  by  retouching  or  by  the  old-time  “ fake  ” of 
spattering  water  colour  with  a tooth-brush,  but  had  I 
done  that,  this  article  would  never  have  been  written. 

I advise  every  camerist  to  try  snow-storm  pictures 
next  winter,  but  be  sure  and  photograph  the  scene 
against  a dark  background,  and  get  under  a shed  or 
an  awning,  if  possible,  so  that  no  flakes  will  fall  near 
the  lens  and  spoil  the  effect  of  the  picture. 


SHORT  HINTS 

Miscellaneous  Fokmul.®,  From  Cramer’s 
Manual 

NEGATIVE  VARNISH 


Best  grain  alcohol 20  oza. 

Crushed  dark  shellac 1 oz. 


Shake  occasionally  for  several  days  until  dissolved 
(without  heat).  Allow  it  to  settle,  then  decant  care- 
fully from  the  settlings,  and  add  two  drachms  of  oil  of 
lavender.  The  negative  should  be  slightly  warmed 
before  varnishing. 

DEAD-BLACK  VARNISH 


Alcohol S OZ3. 

Lamp  black i on. 

Liquid  shellac 1 oz. 


APPENDIX 


317 


FOR  RETOUCHING 


Powdered  rosiu 60  graius. 

Oil  of  turpentine 5 ozs. 


Moisten  a clean  cotton  rag,  and  rub  over  the  parts 
of  the  negative  to  be  retouched. 

HARDENING  SOLUTION 

Water 30  ounces. 

Formalin 1 ounce. 

Immersing  the  negative  a few  minutes  in  this  solu- 
tion will  render  the  gelatine  perfectly  insoluble,  so 
that  the  negative  can  be  dried  by  artificial  heat. 

How  TO  Print  Successfully  From  a Cracked 
Negative 

Every  one  knows  that  a crack  prints  a black  line 
bordered  by  a white  line.  This  crack  ran  through 
the  centre  of  the  plate,  so  I made  an  exposure  with 
the  crack  horizontal,  the  heads  of  the  group  point- 
ing upward,  and  when  half  printed  I reversed  the 
frame,  making  the  heads  point  downward,  thus  com- 
pleting the  exposure.  In  this  way  I made  perfect 
prints.  If  what  was  the  white  line  in  the  first  half 
of  the  printing  should  begin  to  show  darker  than 
the  original  dark  line  before  the  exposure  is  com- 
plete, reverse  the  frame  again  until  this  disappears. 
If  the  crack  shows  in  the  least,  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
printer. 

I have  not  tried  this  plan  with  artificial  light 
printing,  but  should  think  it  will  be  even  simpler  by 
that  process,  as  the  time  can  be  divided  to  a second. 


318  PHOTOGEAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


I consider,  however,  that  the  crack  should  he  kept 
at  the  same  relation  to  the  light  in  every  respect,  in 
the  second  as  in  the  first  half  of  the  exposure. 

If  the  crack  runs  diagonally,  I think  it  will  not 
matter,  provided  the  condition  is  entirely  reversed. — 
The  Amateur  Photographer. 

How  TO  Print  from  a Wet  Negative 

Oftentimes  a print  is  wanted  in  a great  hurry  ; this 
happens  frequently  in  newspaper  work. 

Prints  can  be  obtained  from  wet  negatives  on 
gaslight  paper  by  wetting  the  paper  for  a few  seconds 
and  then  placing  it  carefully  on  the  film  side  of  the 
wet  negative,  smoothing  it  down  with  the  hand  to  in- 
sure perfect  contact. 

Make  the  exposure  without  the  use  of  the  printing 
frame. 

After  exposure,  the  negative  with  the  paper  still  on 
it  should  be  placed  in  water,  when  the  two  will  sepa- 
rate without  harm. 

The  negative  should  of  course  have  been  carefully 
washed  to  remove  all  hypo  remaining  from  the  fixing 
bath. — The  Cyko  Manual. 


A few  drops  of  the  water  to  be  tested  are  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  this  solution.  If  hypo  is 
present,  the  red  colour  will  change  to  green. — The 


Test  for  Hypo  in  Wash  Water 


Permanganate  of  Potash 

Canstic  soda 

Water 


3 grains. 

15  grains. 

16  onnces. 


Cyko  Manual. 


APPENDIX 


319 


Paste  for  Mounting 

Dissolve  a handful  of  ordinary  gloss  starch  in  just 
enough  cold  water  to  make  a thick  solution.  Pour 
hailing  water  into  this  until  it  thickens.  Set  aside  to 
cool  before  using. — The  Cyko  Manual. 


A Guide  to  Focal  Length 
If  a print  be  moved  backward  and  forward  be- 
fore the  eyes  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a point 
at  which  it  becomes  more  stereoscopic  than  at  any 
other,  and  the  distance  of  the  print  from  the  eye  at 
that  point  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  original  focal 
length  of  the  lens  which  took  the  photograph. — 
American  Photography. 


To  Find  the  Focal  Length  of  a Lens 
Make  two  images  of  any  object  of  convenient  length, 
so  that  the  difference  between  the  images  will  be  equal 
to  some  part  of  the  object,  making  the  position  of  the 
ground-glass  on  the  base  of  the  camera  where  each 
image  is  in  focus.  The  distance  between  the  two  posi- 
tions of  the  ground-glass  thus  found  will  be  the  same 
part  of  the  focal  length  that  the  difference  of  the  two 
Images  is  of  the  object. 

Examples : With  two  images  of  a foot  rule,  let  one 
image  be  eight  inches  long  and  the  other  four  inches. 
The  difference  being  one-third  the  length  of  the  ob- 
ject, the  distance  between  the  two  positions  of  the 
ground-glass  will  be  one-third  of  the  focal  length  of 
the  lens. — American  Annual  of  Photography.,  1899. 


320  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


To  Calculate  the  Focal  Fraction  of  Stops 
FOR  Lenses 

Divide  the  focal  length  obtained  by  the  above 
method  expressed  in  inches  and  hundredths,  by  the 
diameter  of  stop  opening  expressed  in  hundredths  of 
an  inch. — American  Annual  of  Photograjihy,  1899. 

To  Clean  a Lens 

First  spread  upon  a table  a clean  sheet  of  paper ; take 
your  lens  carefully  apart ; now  dust  with  camel’s-hair 
brush  each  lens  on  both  sides ; then  take  a clean  gradu- 
ate, pour  in  two  ounces  of  distilled  water,  one  ounce  of 
alcohol  and  three  drops  of  nitric  acid  (C.  P.)  mix  well, 
and  with  a tuft  of  filtering  cotton  dipped  in  this  solution, 
rub  the  lens  on  both  sides ; polish  with  a clean  chamois 
which  is  kept  for  this  purpose  only,  which  when  not 
in  use,  put  away  in  a clean  paper  bag.  After  the 
lenses  are  all  polished,  before  putting  together,  wipe 
out  carefully  the  brass  tube ; then  dust  each  lens  with 
a camel’s-hair  brush  (never  blow  on  them)  and  put  to- 
gether. A lens  cleaned  in  this  way  will  keep  clean 
much  longer  than  it  would,  if  simply  wiped  with  a 
chamois. — “ The  Art  of  Negative  Making  ” {M.  A. 
Seed  Co.'s  pamphlet'). 

Portraits  with  the  No.  3 Kodak 

With  a No.  3 Folding  Pocket  Kodak  and  Portrait 
Attachment  you  should  focus  as  follows : 

To  work  at  2 ft.  8 in.  set  focus  at  6 ft. 

((  ( 4 4 4 ^ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 g 44 

4 4 4 4 4 4 ^ 1 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 5 ^ * 

* 4 4 4 4 < ( ^ < < < < < 25  * * 

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44  4 4 44  JQQ  44 

In  each  case  the  distance  is  to  be  measured  from 
lens  to  subject. — Kodak  Pamphlet. 


APPENDIX 


321 


Continental  Stops  and  their  U.  S. 

Equivalents 

Mr.  Edward  M.  Nelson  says:  “Photographers  are 
frequently  troubled  by  the  Continental  nomenclature 
of  the  stops,  and  wish  to  know  the  U.  S.  equivalents 
for  them.  The  method  of  finding  this  out  is  very 
simple.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  divide  /'-4  by  the 
ratio  to  be  converted,  and  square  the  result.  Ex- 
ample : required  the  U.  S.  equivalent  of  f-*d : — 


4 • 


= 2.25  ; 


the  square  of  2.25  is  5.06,  the  U.  S.  number  required. 
— The  British  Journal  Photographic  Almanac^  1907. 


Rules  for  Changing  Degrees  in  one  Ther- 
mometer System  to  Another 

C.  = Centigrade. 

F.  = Fahrenheit. 

R.  = Reaumur. 

C.  to  F.  Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,  add  32. 

C.  to  R.  Multiply  by  4,  divide  by  5. 

F.  to  C.  Subtract  32,  multiply  by  5,  divide  by  9. 

F.  to  R.  Subtract  32,  divide  by  9,  multiply  by  4. 

R.  to  C.  Multiply  by  4,  divide  by  5. 

R.  to  F.  Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4,  add  32. 


INDEX 


Index 


Aberration,  chromatic,  141 ; 
spherical,  140 

Achromatic  lenses,  229,  242 
Acids,  in  chemistry,  273-275 
Albumen  papers,  201,  243 
Alkaline  developers,  256 
Amateur  photography,  4-9 
Ambrotype,  244 
Amidol,  186 

Anastigmatic  lenses,  147 
Animals,  photographs  of,  120 
Antidotes  to  poisons  (table),  289 
Apparatus,  improvements  in,  6-8 
Aristo,  251 
Aristo,  Jr.,  201 
Aristotle,  225 

Art,  in  photography,  96-105 
Artificial  lights,  brilliancy  (table), 

288 

Astigmatism,  142 

Atomic  weights,  of  elements 
(table),  290 
Autochrome  plates,  266 
Autumn  photographs,  109 

Bases,  in  chemistry,  273-275 
Ueccari,  229 
Becquerel,  262 
Bellows,  the  long,  156 
Bennet,  Charles,  246 
Bi-con  vex  lens,  144 
Bitumen,  233 
Blanchard,  Valentine,  253 
Blue-prints,  203,  310 
Box  camera,  39 
Bromide,  186,  190 
Bromide  papers,  202 
Brush  development,  94 
Burton,  77 

Calotype,  242 

Camera,  attachments,  42,  152-161 ; 
choice  of  a,  34-42 ; drill  in  use 

326 


of,  47-53;  modern  forms  of 
250 ; primitive  forms  of,  226- 
228;  setting  up  the,  65,  114, 
115,  121,  153;  simplest  form  of, 
14-16,  23  ; value  of  the,  vi-viii, 
>-5 

Camera  Image.  See  Image 
Cap,  the,  158 
Carbon  papers,  206 
Carbutt  plates,  250 
Chemical  action,  218-220,  279 
Chemistry,  of  photography,  29-30, 
272-281 
Chlorine,  240 
Cinematograph,  255 
Coal-tar  developers,  19 1,  256 
Coins,  weights  of  (tables),  284 
Collodion  paper,  201  ; process, 
243“245 

Colour,  effect  of,  96-98,  99,  169 ; 

photography,  260-26S 
Contrast,  principle  of,  97-99 
Cramer  plates,  250 
Cross-swing,  156 
Curvature  of  field,  142 
Cyko,  202 

Daguerre,  Louis,  225,  235-238, 
241,  256,  262 

Daguerreotype,  235-238,  240-242 
Dark-room,  the,  54-56 
Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  231,  239 
Developers,  choice  of,  186,  190- 
193,  294,  298-300;  factors  for 
(with  tables),  295-298,  300- 
302  ; quantity  used,  298  ; special 
(tables),  296 

Developing,  apparatus  for,  75 ; 
chemistry  of,  29,  277-279 ; in 
Lumifire  process,  267  ; methods 
of,  184-190,  232-238,  240-247, 
256;  papers,  92-95,  202  ; process 
of-  73*  75-82,  192,  292-295 

(with  tables),  300-302 ; temper- 


326 


INDEX 


ature  for,  78,  183-186;  time  of, 
78,  183-186 

Diaphragm,  the,  49-53.  69,  166, 
170-172;  markings,  170,  320, 
321 

Distortion,  141 
Dollond,  John,  229,  242 
Draper,  J.  W.,  241-243 
Driffield,  V.  C.,  176 
Droj>  front,  158 

Dryingplates,  81-82, 193;  prints, 89 
Dry-plate  process,  245-247,  249 
Du  Hauron,  L.  D.,  265 
Duplicate  photography,  3 13-3 15 

Electricity,  2 12-2 15 
Elements,  chemical,  272-274,  275  ; 

and  their  symbols  (table),  290 
Emulsion,  for  plate,  245 
Enlarging,  253 

Ether,  the,  21 1 ; waves,  212-216 
Exposure  meters,  66,  71,  124,  129, 
169 

Exposures,  length  of,  41-44,  48, 
51,  66-73,  122-125,  162-168, 
178-183,  194,  292;  mechanism 
regulating,  159;  tables  for,  285, 
287 

Factorial  system  of  developing, 
184 

Ferrotype  plates,  91 
Film-pack,  38 

Films,  kodak,  251  ; or  plates,  36- 
39 ; varieties  of,  37,  See  also 
Plates 

Finder,  the,  42,  loi 
Fixed  focus,  40 
Fizeau,  240 

Focal  length,  164-167,  319 
Focal-plane  shutter,  159 
Focus,  depth  of,  50-52  ; fixed,  40  ; 
for  landscapes,  65  ; principles  of, 
44-46.  See  also  Focal  le.ngth 
Fog,  in  negative,  194 
Folding  camera,  39 
Fox-Talbot,  241-243 
Freak  pictures,  269,  31 1 

Gaslight,  in  developing,  93 ; 
papers,  20Z-203 


Gelatine  papers,  201 
Gelatino-bromide  process,  245 
Glycerine  process,  306 
Goddard,  240 

Ground-glass,  the,  36,  38,  39 
Group  portraits,  117 
Gum-bichromate  process,  207 

Halation,  131-132 
Halogens,  276 
Heat  waves,  212 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  239,  240,  243, 
262 

Herschel,  William,  230 
Horn-silver.  See  Silver  Com- 
pounds 

Hunt,  Robert,  262 
Hurter,  176 
Hydrochinon,  191 
Hypo,  79,  88,  192,  239,  243,  275, 
278;  test  for,  318 

Iles,  George,  vii,  3 
Image,  fixing  the,  24,  27 
Indelible  ink,  221 
Indoor  photography,  106,  107,  122- 
132 

Intensifying,  195-197 ; chemistry 
of,  278  ; tables  for,  302-304 
Interiors,  130-132 
Iodine,  action  on  silver,  236-238 
Iris  diaphragm.  See  Diaphragm 
Iron  printing  papers,  203-206 

JOLV  process,  264-266 

Kallitype,  205  ; table  for,  307 
Kinetosc’ope,  255 

Kodak,  the,  250,  320 ; tank  de- 
velopment, 300-302 

Landscapes,  distant,  65,  107, 1 10- 
1 14  ; near  view,  65,  1 14-1 17 
Lantern  slides,  208 
Lens,  the,  16-  23  ; early  use  of  the, 
226-228  ; errors  of  the,  140-143 
Lens-mechanism,  48,  154-158 
Lenses,  cleaning,  320;  different 
forms  of,  42,  132,  143-15 1,  165, 
229,  247 ; speed  of,  52,  148, 
164-167 


INDEX 


327 


Lewis,  William,  229,  231 
Light,  action  of,  11-14,  16-23,  ^4> 
28,  32,  51-54,  67-99,  86,  131, 
177-183,  217-222,  228-238,  248, 
257-259,  263,  276 ; and  shade, 
97-99,  108- 1 10,  1 13,  1 15,  125, 
128,  162,  168,  169;  artihcial 
(table),  288  ; laws  of,  211-218; 
values,  128,  163  (tables),  285 
Lippraan  process,  262-264 
Lithography,  233 
Lumiire  process,  266-268 

Maddox,  R.  L.,  245 
Mansfield,  George,  246 
Maynard,;.  P„  243-245 
Measures,  weights  and  (tables), 
283 

Meniscus  lenses,  145 
Mercury,  237 
Metal  quinol  (M.  Q.),  191 
Metol,  19 1,  256 

Microscopic  objects,  photographing, 
268 

Monckhoven,  Dr.,  246 
Moonlight  pictures,  270 
Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  241,  242 
Mountain  photographs,  1 1 1 
Mounting,  90 

Moving  objects,  exposures  for 
(table),  288 ; photographs  of, 
1 18,  172-174;  pictures,  253-256 
Multi-speed  shutter,  161 

Negative,  definition  of,  30 
Negatives,  cracked,  317;  destroy- 
ing, 198  ; the  first,  243  ; fog  in, 
194 ; intensifying  and  reducing, 
i95->97.  278-2^,  (tables)  302- 
304;  preserving,  81,  198,  316; 
retouching,  197,  317 ; wet,  318. 
See  also  Developing  ; Plates 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  216 
Niepce,  Joseph,  2vi-2'i6,  2c6,  261 
Ni6pce,  de  St.  Victorf  C.  M.  F., 

243.  263 

Orthochromatic  photography, 
109  ; plates,  257-259 
Outdoor  photography,  106-121 
Ozobrome  process,  207 


Pastes,  for  mounting,  90,  319 
People,  photographs  of.  See  Por- 
traits 

Perspective,  in  interior,  130;  in 
landscapes,  111-113,  117 
Petzval  lens,  247-249 
Photography,  definition  of,  v,  10, 
224  ; history  of,  223-248  ; value 
of,  vi,  1-5 

Piazza  photographs,  1 27-1 29 
Pinhole  lens,  15-18,  139,  225 
Plant-life,  116,  120 
Plate-holders,  defects  in,  62 ; load- 

. ing.  53-58 

Plates,  developing.  See  Develop- 
ing; drying,  193;  essential  ele- 
ments of,  24  ; or  films,  36-39  ; 
injuries  to,  25-27  ; inventions  of, 
243-247,  249 ; the  Lumi^re, 

266  ; orthochromatic,  257-259  ; 
preserving,  80-82,  198 ; selec- 
tion of,  60-62 ; sizes  of,  36 ; 
speed  of,  167-169;  washing,  192 
Platinotype  paper,  203-205 
Platinum  process,  304 
Poisons  and  antidotes  (table),  289 
Poitevin,  263 
Porta,  G.  B.  della,  226 
Portrait  lenses,  150 
Portraits,  104,  1 24-1 27;  the  first, 
242;  group,  1 17;  outdoor,  I17- 
120,  with  kodak,  320 
Positives,  208 
Priestley,  Joseph,  229,  231 
Principality,  III 

Printing,  in  colours,  260-262 ; in- 
ventions in,  232-238,  240-247 ; 
methods  of,  84-87,  92-95,  199- 
209,  251-253;  papers,  200-209; 
processes,  31,  83,  (with  tables) 
304-310,  318 
Printing-frame,  85 
Printing-out  papers,  201 
Prism,  the,  18-21,  216 
Pyro,  186,  190,  277 

Reade,  243 

Rectilinear  lenses,  146-148 
Reducing,  195-197 ; chemistry  of, 
279-280  ; tables  for,  302-304, 
Refraction,  216 


328 


INDEX 


ReJIander,  252 
Retouching,  197,  317 
Reversible  back,  154-156 
Revolving  back,  154-156 
Rising  and  falling  front,  156 
Ritter,  J„  230 

Rocking,  in  developing,  189 
Roll-hlms,  38,  251  ; loading  with, 
57 

Salts,  in  chemistry,  275 

Sarony,  Otto,  252 

Scheele,  C.  W.,  229 

Schulze,  J.  II.,  228 

Science,  photography  in,  3,  268 

Scott-Archer,  244 

Seashore  photographs,  109 

Seasons,  effect  of,  108-110 

Seebeck,  262 

Sensitizing,  309 

Sepia  tones,  305 

Shade,  light  and,  97-99,  108-no, 
1 13,  115,  125,  128,  162,  168,  169 
Shutter-mechanism,  48,  158-161 
Silk,  printing  on  (table),  310 
Silver  compounds,  action  of  light 
on,  24,  177-183,  220-222,  228- 
238,  276  ; nitrate,  chemical  com- 
position, 273 ; printing  papers, 
200-203,  241-243,  307-309 
Sky-line,  the,  1 12 
Snow-storm  pictures,  315 
Solio,  201 

' Spectrum,  the,  216-218 
Spirit  pictures,  270 
Spring  photographs,  108 
Stops.  See  Diaphragm 


Subjects,  choice  of,  64,  96-105 
Summer  photographs,  108 
Sun,  pointing  camera  at,  114 
Sunlight,  action  of,  217-222;  com- 
position of,  215-218.  See  also 
Light 

Swing-back,  the,  154 
Swing- bed,  155 

Talbotyfe,  242-243 
Tank  system,  developing,  184 
(tables),  300-302 
Taupenot,  245 
Telephoto  lenses,  150 
Thermometers,  different,  321 
Three-colour  process,  260-262 
Toning,  87  ; solution  for,  309 
Trimming,  89 
Tripod,  the,  121,  152-154 

Varnish,  316 
Velox,  202,  203 
View  camera,  35 
Views.  See  Landscapes 
Vignetting,  252 
Vogel,  Hermann,  248 

Washing  plates,  80,  192 
Water,  in  landscape,  116 
Watkins,  Alfred,  223 
Wedgwood,  Thomas,  231,  239,242 
Weights  and  measures  (tables),  283 
Wet-plate  process,  243-245 
Wide-angle  lenses,  132,  149,  165 
Winter  photographs,  109,  3 15 
Wortley,  Stuart,  246 


• *■ 

^ ’ 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


il  II II  Hill  nil  III  III  III  I! 

3 3125  00634  0679 


